U3RAHY  OF  PRINCETON 


9  rj  onno 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2015 


https://archive.org/details/historypresentco00russ_1 


BARBARY  STATES. 


NEW-YORK: 
HARPER  &  BROTHERS. 
18  37. 


COMPREHENDING  A  VIEW  OF 


THEIR  CIVIL  INSTITUTIONS,  ANTIQUITIES,  ARTS,  RELIGION, 
LITERATURE,  COMMERCE,  AGRICULTURE,  AND 
NATURAL  PRODUCTIONS. 


BY  REV.  MICHAEL  RUSSELL,  LL.D., 

AUTHOR  OF 

"View  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Egj-pt,"  "  Palestine,  or  the  Holy  Land," 
"  Nubia  and  Abysainia,"  &c. 


WITH  SEVERAL  ENGRAVINGS. 


NEW- YORK : 

PUBLISHED  BY  HARPER  &  BROTHERS, 
NO.  82  CLIFF-STREET. 

1  83  7. 


LIBRAIW  OF  PRINCETON 


j    JUL  2  9  2003  i 

^  ^L..,  ._.   i 


PREFACE. 


This  volume  completes  the  plan  originally  formed 
by  the  pubhshers  for  illustrating  the  History,  the 
Antiquities,  and  the  Present  Condition  of  Africa. 

In  the  first  instance,  they  drew  the  attention  of 
their  readers  to  the  progress  of  Discovery  in  that 
vast  continent ;  describing  the  natural  features  of  its 
several  kingdoms,  the  social  state  of  its  people,  and 
thereby  bringing  into  one  view  all  that  appeared 
valuable  in  the  observations  of  those  travellers, 
whether  in  ancient  or  modern  times,  who  have  sought 
to  explore  the  remote  recesses  of  its  interior.  They 
next  made  it  their  endeavour  to  collect,  within  a  nar- 
row compass,  all  that  is  known  respecting  Egypt, 
Nubia,  and  Abyssinia, — those  countries  so  full  of 
interest  to  the  scholar  and  the  antiquary,  and  which 
are  universally  acknowledged  to  have  been  the  cra- 
dle of  the  arts,  so  far  as  the  elements  of  these  were 
communicated  to  the  inhabitants  of  Europe. 

The  Work  now  presented  to  the  Public  has  for  its 
object  an  historical  outline  of  those  remarkable  prov- 
inces which  stretch  along  the  southern  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,  during  the  successive  periods  when 
they  were  occupied  by  the  Phoenicians,  the  Romans, 
the  Vandals,  the  Arabs,  and  the  Moors ;  as  well  as 
a  delineation  of  their  condition  since  they  acknowl- 
edged the  dominion  of  the  Porte. 

A2 


vi 


PREFACE. 


No  one  who  has  read  the  annals  of  Carthage  can 
be  ignorant  of  the  importance  once  attached  to  this 
singular  country  ;  in  which  was  first  exhibited  to  the 
eye  of  European  nations  the  immense  poHtical  power 
that  may  be  derived  from  an  improved  agriculture,  an 
active  commerce,  and  the  command  of  the  sea.  In 
the  plains  of  Tunis,  too,  w^ere  fought  those  battles 
which  confirmed  the  ascendency  of  Rome,  and  laid 
the  foundations  of  that  colossal  empire,  whose  ter- 
ritory extended  from  the  Danube  to  the  Atlas  Moun- 
tains, and  from  the  German  Ocean  to  the  banks  of  the 
Euphrates.  The  gigantic  conflict  between  the  two 
greatest  republics  of  the  ancient  world  was  at  length 
determined  among  the  burning  sands  of  Numidia,  or 
on  those  shores  which,  for  many  centuries,  have 
been  strangers  to  the  civilization  and  arts  diffused 
around  their  camps  by  these  mighty  rivals  for 
universal  sovereignty. 

Nor  are  the  kingdoms  of  Northern  Africa  less  in- 
teresting in  an  ecclesiastical  point  of  view.  The 
names  of  TertuUian,  Cyprian,  and  Augustin,  reflect 
honour  on  the  churches  of  that  land  ;  and  their  works 
are  still  esteemed  as  part  of  those  authentic  records 
whence  the  divine  derives  his  knowledge  of  the  doc- 
trines, the  usages,  and  institutions  of  primitive  Chris- 
tianity. With  relation  to  the  same  object,  the  inroad 
of  the  schismatical  Vandals,  and  the  conquest 
effected  by  the  Arabs,  present  subjects  worthy  of  the 
deepest  reflection,  inasmuch  as  they  led  to  the  grad- 
ual deterioration  of  the  orthodox  faith,  till  it  was  ejv- 
tirely  superseded  by  the  imposture  of  Mphammed. 
On  these  heads  the  reader  will  find  some  important 
details  in  the  Chapter  on  the  Religion  and  Literature 
of  the  Barbary  States. 


PREFA<;jE. 


The  writings  of  recent  travellers  have  thrown  a 
fascinating  light  over  some  parts  of  the  ancient  Cy- 
renaica, — a  section  of  the  Tripohne  territory,  which, 
having  enjoyed  the  benefit  of  Grecian  learning  at  an 
early  period,  still  displays  the  remains  of  architec- 
tural skill  and  elegance,  borrowed  from  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Athens  and  Sparta.  The  position  of  the 
several  towns  composing  the  celebrated  Pentapolis, 
the  beauty  of  the  landscape,  the  fertility  of  the  soil, 
and  the  magnificence  of  the  principal  edifices,  have 
been,  in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  not  only  illus- 
trated with  much  talent,  but  ascertained  with  a  de- 
gree of  accuracy  that  removes  all  reasonable  doubt. 
The  conjectures  of  Bruce  are  confirmed,  or  refuted, 
by  the  actual  delineations  of  Beechey  and  Delia 
Cella. 

The  modern  history  of  Barbary  is  chiefly  interest- 
ing from  the  relations  which  so  long  subsisted  be- 
tween its  rulers  and  the  maritime  states  of  Europe,- 
who,  in  order  to  protect  their  commerce  from  vio- 
lence, and  their  subjects  from  captivity,  found  it 
occasionally  expedient  to  enter  into  treaty  with  the 
lieutenants  of  the  Ottoman  government.  The  wars 
which,  from  time  to  time,  were  waged  against  the 
rovers  of  Tunis,  Sallee,  and  Algiers,  from  the  days 
of  the  Emperor  Charles  the  Fifth  down  to  the  late 
invasion  by  the  French,  are  full  of  incident  and  ad- 
venture ;  presenting,  in  the  most  vivid  colours,  the 
triumph  of  educated  man  over  the  rude  strength  of 
the  barbarian,  coupled  with  the  inefficacy  of  all  ne- 
gotiation ■  which  rested  on  national  faith  or  honour. 
The  records  of  piracy,  which,  not  many  years  ago, 
filled  the  whole  of  Christendom  with  terror  and  in- 
dignation, may  now  be  perused  with  feelings  of  com- 


riii 


PREFACE. 


placency,  arising  from  the  conviction  that  the  power 
of  the  marauders  has  been  broken,  and  their  ravages 
finally  checked.  Algiers,  after  striking  its  flag  to 
the  fleets  of  Britain,  was  compelled  to  obey  the 
soldiers  of  France, — an  event  that  may  be  said  to 
constitute  a  new  era  in  the  policy  of  the  Moors,  and 
seems  to  hold  forth  a  prospect,  however  indistinct, 
of  civilization,  industry,  and  the  dominion  of  law 
over  brutal  force  and  passion,  being  again  established 
throughout  the  fine  provinces  which  extend  from 
Cape  Spartel  to  the  Gulf  of  Bomba. 

The  Chapter  on  the  Commerce  of  the  Barbary 
States  indicates,  at  least,  the  sources  of  wealth 
which,  under  an  enlightened  rule,  might  be  rendered 
available,  not  only  for  the  advantage  of  the  natives, 
but  also  of  the  trading  communities  on  the  opposite 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  Everywhere,  in  the 
soil,  in  the  climate,  and  in  the  situation  of  the  coun- 
try, are  seen  scattered,  with  a  liberal  hand,  the  ele- 
ments of  prosperity  ;  and  it  is  manifest  that  the 
plains  which  w^ere  once  esteemed  the  granary  of 
Rome,  might  again,  with  the  aid  of  modern  science, 
be  rendered  extremely  productive  in  the  luxuries,  aa 
well  as  the  necessaries,  of  human  life. 

The  assiduity  of  French  writers,  since  the  con 
quest  of  Algiers,  has  afl^brded  the  means  of  becoming 
better  acquainted  than  formerly  with  the  geology  of 
Northern  Africa,  as  well  as  with  several  other 
branches  of  Natural  History.  From  the  same 
source  have  been  derived  materials  for  the  embel- 
lishments introduced  into  this  volume,  and  also  for 
improving  the  Map,  which  the  reader  will  find  pre- 
fixed. 

Edinburgh,  March  16,  1835. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  1. 

Ancient  History. 

Contrast  between  the  present  and  ancient  Condition  of  the  Bar 
bary  States — View  of  ancient  Manners — Remains  of  former 
Magnificence — Revolutions  in  that  Country  at  once  sudden 
and  entire — Countries  comprehended  in  Barbary — Division, 
according  to  Herodotus — Origin  of  the  term  Barbary — Opin- 
ion of  Leo  Airicanus — Emigrants  from  Asia  and  Arabia — Mon- 
uments which  denote  an  Eastern  People — Colonies  from  Tyre 
— Foundationof  Carthage— Supposed  Extent  of  her  Territory 
— Remark  of  Polybius — Carthaginians  encouraged  Agricul- 
ture— Various  Tribes  subject  to  Carthage,  or  in  Alliance  with 
her — The  History  of  Carthage  for  a  long  time  includes  that 
of  all  the  Barbary  States — First  Attempt  on  Sicily  and  Sar- 
dinia— Ambitious  Views  of  the  Carthaginians — Provoke  the 
Resentment  of  Alexander  the  Great — First  Punic  War — Car- 
thage besieged — Second  Punic  War — Character  of  Hannibal 
— Scipio  invades  the  Carthaginian  Territory — Hannibal  re- 
called— Is  defeated  at  Zama — Third  Panic  Vi^ar— Fall  of 
Carthage — History  of  Jugurtha — Subdued  by  the  Romans — 
Marius  and  Sylla — Pompey  and  Caesar — Conclusion  Page  17 

CHAPTER  11. 

Constitution,  Commerce,  and  Navigation  of  the  Phoenician 
Colonies  on  the  Coast  of  Barbary. 

Independence  of  the  federated  Towns,  Utica,  Leptis,  &c. — 
Predominance  of  Carthage — Constancy  of  her  Government — 
Its  Progress  described — Originally  a  Monarchy,  but  gradually 
became  aristocratical— House  of  Mago — Rights  of  the  People 
exercised  in  pubHc  Assemblies — And  in  the  Election  of  Magis- 
trates— Decided  in  all  questions  in  which  the  Kings  and  Sen- 
ate could  not  agree — Constitution  and  Power  of  the  Senate — 
The  Select  Council— The  Kings  or  Suffetes — Distinction  be- 
tween  the  King  and  a  General — Some  resemblance  to  Roman 
Consuls  and  Hebrew  Judges — Wise  Administration  of  Justice 
—No  judicial  Assembhes  of  the  People — Basis  of  Power  oc- 


10 


CONTENTS. 


cupied  by  the  Senate — Trade  and  Commerce  of  Carthage — 
Inherited  from  the  Phoenicians — Her  Position  favourable — 
Engrossed  the  Trade  of  Africa  and  Southern  Europe — Op- 
posed by  the  Greeks  at  Marseilles— Her  intercourse  with 
Sicily,  Sardinia,  Malta,  and  the  Balearic  Isles — The  Mines 
of  Spain  attract  her  Notice — Carthaginian  Dealers  penetrate 
into  Gaul— Colonies  in  the  Atlantic — The  western  Coasts  of 
Spain — Voyages  to  Britain  and  the  Tin  Islands — Poem  of 
Festus  Avlenus — Trade  in  Amber — Question  whether  the 
Carthaginians  ever  entered  the  Baltic — Voyage  of  Hanno 
towards  the  South — Colonies  planted  on  the  western  Coast 
of  Africa — The  Towns  built  in  that  Quarter — The  Carthagin- 
ians discovered  Madeira — The  Date  at  which  the  Expedi- 
tions of  Hanno  and  Hamilco  took  place — Proofs  that  Carthage 
must  have  attained  great  Power  and  Civilization — Her  Libra- 
ries— Agriculture — Splendid  Villas — Rich  Meadows  and  Gar- 
dens— Her  extensive  Land  trade  across  the  Desert — Her  war- 
like Propensities — Causes  of  her  Decline  and  Fall    Page  45 

CHAPTER  in. 

Modern  History  of  the  Barhary  States. 

Time  when  the  Barbary  States  assumed  an  independent  Exist- 
ence— The  Libyans  first  inhabited  Northern  Africa— Influence 
of  Phoenician  Colonies — Ancient  and  Modern  Divisions  of  the 
Countrj;- Extent  of  Roman  Conquests — Revival  of  Carthage 
—Rebuilt  from  its  own  Ruins — Site  and  description  of  it — 
Remains  of  former  Magnificence — Mercenary  Conduct  of  Ro- 
manus,  Count  of  Africa — Sufferings  of  the  Tripolitans— Usur- 
pation of  Firmus — Victories  of  Theodosius — Death  of  Firmus 
— Insurrection  under  Gildo — Wisdom  and  Bravery  of  Stilicho 
— Death  of  Gildo — Rebellion  of  Heraclian — Error  of  Bonifa- 
cius — He  invites  the  Vandals — Progress  of  Genseric,  their 
General — Death  of  Bonifacius — Continued  Success  of  the 
Vandals — Fall  of  Carthage — Severe  Sutferings  of  the  Inhabi- 
tants— Policy  of  Genseric — He  creates  a  Navy — Sacks  Rome 
— Prosecutes  a  Maritime  War — Marjorian  meditates  the  Inva- 
sion of  Africa — His  Fleet  is  destroyed  by  Fire — Attempt  of  Ba- 
silicus — Loss  of  his  Ships — Death  of  Genseric — Accession  of 
Justinian — Usurpation  of  Gelimer  in  Africa — Belisarius  takes 
the  Command  there — Victory  over  Gelimer — He  reduces  Car- 
thage—Conquest of  Africa — Surrender  of  Gelimer — Decay  of 
the  Vandal  Power — Africa  gradually  relapses  into  Barbarism 
—Commerce  and  Agriculture  languish — Arrival  of  the  Sara- 
cens— Conduct  of  the  Prefect  Gregory — Valour  of  Akbah — 
Dissension  among  the  Caliphs — Akbah  is  slain — Conduct  and 
Fate  of  Zobeir — Foundation  of  Kairwan — Hassan  retakes 


CONTENTS.  11 

Carthage — The  Greek  Imperialists  defeated,  and  finally  leave 
the  Country — The  Moors  contend  for  the  Sovereignty — Queen 
Cahina— Her  Success  and  Defeat — Union  of  the  Moors  and 
Mohammedan  Arabs — Revolt  of  Ibrahim — Dynasty  of  the  Ag- 
labites— Other  Dynasties  founded  by  Rostam  and  Edris — Rise 
of  the  Fatimites— Of  the  Zeirites— Emigration  of  Arabs  from 
the  Red  Sea — The  Almohades  and  Alraoravides    .    Page  64 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Religion  and  Literature  of  the  Barbary  States. 

The  Religion  and  Literature  vary  with  the  successive  Inhab- 
itants— Superstition  of  the  Natives — Human  Sacrifices  con- 
tinued by  the  Carthaginians — Worship  of  Melcarth,  Astart^, 
and  Baal— No  sacred  Caste  or  Priesthood — Religious  Rites 
performed  by  the  Chief  Magistrates — Introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity— Accomplished  by  the  Arms  of  Rome — Different  Opin- 
ions as  to  the  Date  of  Conversion  and  the  Persons  by  whom 
it  was  effected — Statements  of  Salvian  and  Augustin — Learn- 
ing and  Eloquence  of  the  African  Clergy,  Tertullian,  Cyprian, 
Lactantius,  and  the  Bishop  of  Hippo — Works  of  these  Divines 
—Death  of  Cyprian  and  Augustin — The  Writings  of  the  Latin 
Fathers  chiefly  valuable  as  a  Record  of  Usages,  Opinions,  and 
Discipline — Church  revived  under  Justinian — Invasion  of  the 
Moslem— Christian  Congregations  permitted  to  exist  under 
the  Mohammedan  Rulers — Conditions  of  Toleration — Afri- 
cans gradually  yield  to  the  Seducements  of  the  New  Faith, 
and  the  Gospel  is  superseded  by  the  Koran — Barbary  States 
the  only  Country  where  Christianity  has  been  totally  extin- 
guished— Attempt  made  to  restore  it  by  the  Patriarch  of  Alex- 
andria— Five  Bishops  sent  to  Kairwan — Public  Profession 
of  the  Gospel  cannot  be  traced  after  the  Twelfth  Century — 
A  few  Christians  found  at  Tunis  in  1533— Learning  of  the 
Arabs — Great  Exertions  of  Almamoun — He  collects  Greek 
Authors,  and  causes  them  to  be  translated — He  is  imitated 
by  the  Fatimites  of  Africa — Science  cultivated  by  the  Mo- 
hammedans Five  Hundred  Years — Their  chief  Studies  were 
Mathematics,  Astronomy,  and  Chymistry — Their  Progress  in 
Chymical  Researches — Neglect  Literature,  properly  so  caUed 
— Prospect  of  Improvement  from  the  Settlement  of  European 
Colonies  in  Northern  Africa  .93 


It 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  V. 
The  Cyrenaica  and  Pentapolis. 

Modem  Acceptation  of  the  Term  Barbary — Desert  of  Barca — 
District  of  Marmarica — Its  desolate  State— Remains  of  an- 
cient Improvement— Derna — Natural  Advantages — Habits  of 
the  People — Want  of  good  Harbours— Ruins — Opinion  of  Pa- 
cho — Excavations  and  Grottoes— Gyrene — Details  by  Herodo- 
tus— War  with  Egypt— Successes  of  the  Persians — Form  of 
Government — Gyrene  subject  to  Egypt— Persians — Saracens 
— Present  State  of  the  Gyrenaica — Marsa-Suza — Ruins — Ap- 
oUonia  —  Monuments  of  Ghristianity — Tombs  —  Theatres — 
Style  of  Architecture— Amphitheatre — Temples — Stadium — 
Hypogea — Notion  of  petrified  Village — Account  by  Shaw — 
Remark  by  Delia  Gella— Journey  of  Captain  Smyth — State  of 
Ghirza— Fountain  of  Apollo — Description  of  it — Examined  by 
Capt.  Beechey — Plain  of  Merge — Barca — Histor}^  of— Doubts 
as  to  its  real  Position— Opinion  of  Delia  Gella — Ptolemeta  or 
Dolmeita — Fine  Situation  of  the  Town — Streets  covered  with 
Grass  and  Shrubs — Extent  of  the  Gity — Ruins — Theatres — 
Magnificent  Gateway — Supposed  of  Egyptian  Origin — Hy- 
pothesis of  Delia  Gella — Disputed  by  Gapt.  Beechey — Taucra, 
or  ancient  Teuchira — Unfavourable  as  a  Seaport — Gomplete 
Demohtionof  its  Buildings — Ruins  of  two  Ghristian  Ghurch- 
es — Tombs — Variety  of  Greek  Inscriptions — Mode  of  Burial 
— Bengazi,  or  Berenice — Miserable  Condition  of  the  Place — 
Plague  of  Flies — Population — ^^Gharacter  of  Inhabitants — Gar- 
dens of  the  Hesperides — Glowing  Descriptions  of  them  by  an- 
cient Writers— Position  indicated  by  Scylax — Labours  of  Gap- 
tain  Beechey — Conclusion  Page  114 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Tripoli  and  its  immediate  Dependances. 

Ancient  Limits  of  the  Pachalic— Great  Syrtis  seldom  visited — 
Delia  Gella  and  the  Beecheys — Ghimines — Forts  and  Ruins — 
Tabilba — Remains  of  a  Castle — Curious  Arch — Braiga,  a 
Seaport,  and  strongly  garrisoned— Thought  to  be  the  ancient 
Automata — Sachrin,  the  southern  Point  of  the  Gulf— Shape 
of  the  Bay — Gato,  Lucan,  and  Sallust — Muktar — Hudia — 
Linoof — Mahiriga — Fortress — Tower  of  Bengerwad — Suppo- 
sed to  be  that  of  Euphrantas — Charax — Medinet  Sultan — 
Shuaisha — Hamed  Garoosh — ZafFran — Habits  of  the  Natives 
— Their  Dress — The  Aspis  of  Ancient  Writers — Giraff— Gape 
Triero — Mesurata — Salt-marshes — Gulf  of  Zuca — Lebida— 


CONTENTS. 


13 


Ruins — Narrative  of  Captain  Smyth — Tagiura — Fertility — 
Tripoli — Appearance — Tripoli  believed  to  be  of  Moorish  ori- 
gin— Old  Tripoli  destroyed  by  the  Saracens — Opinion  of  Leo 
Africanus— Favourable  Judgment  formed  by  Mr.  Blaqiiiere — 
Moral  Character  of  the  Tripolines — Statement  by  the  Author 
of  TuUy's  Letters — Description  of  Tripoli  by  Captain  Bee- 
chey — Pacha's  Castle — Mosques — rTriumphal  Arch — Inhabi- 
tants divided  into  Moors  and  Arabs — Manner  in  which  the 
Turks  spend  their  time — Peculiar  Mode  of  conducting  Con- 
versation—Bedouins— Their  Dress  and  Manners — The  Pia- 
nura  or  Fertile  Plain — Visit  to  the  Castle— Magnificence  of 
the  Apartments— Pacha's  principal  Wife — Mode  of  Saluta- 
tion— Refreshments — History  of  Tripoli — Knights  of  Malta — 
Rajoot  Rais— Admiral  Blake — Sir  John  Narborough — Major 
Eaton — Revolution  by  Hamet  the  Great — The  Atrocities 
which  attended  it — Fezzan — Siwah — Augila— Marabouts — 
Scene  witnessed  by  Captain  Lyon — Drunkenness — Langua- 
ges spoken  at  TripoU  Page  153 

CHAPTER  VIL 

Tunis  and  its  Dependances. 

Lands  included  in  the  Pachalic  of  Tunis — History  resumed — 
Abou  Ferez — His  Court,  Bodyguard,  and  Council — Invasion 
of  Tunis  by  Louis  IX. — Carthage  reduced — Sufferings  of  the 
French — Deatn  of  the  King — Arrival  of  the  Sicilian  Crusa- 
ders—Failure of  the  Expedition — Rise  of  the  two  Barbarossas, 
Horuc  and  Hayradin — The  former  invited  to  assist  the  King 
of  Algiers — He  murders  him  and  seizes  the  Government — 
The  Usurper  defeated  and  slain — Algiers  occupied  by  Hayra- 
din, who  courts  the  protection  of  the  Grand  Seignior — Plans 
an  attack  on  Tunis — Succeeds  in  his  Attempt — Excites  the 
Resentment  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V. — The  vast  Prepara- 
tions in  Italy  and  Spain— Barbarossa  prepares  for  Defence — 
The  Goletta  is  taken — A  general  Engagement  ensues — The 
Moors  are  defeated  and  Tunis  falls— The  Town  is  sacked 
and  plundered — Muley  Hassan  restored— Conditions— Ex- 
ploits of  Barbarossa — Spaniards  expelled  by  Sehm  II. — Tu- 
nisians elect  a  Dey — Government  settled  in  a  Bey — Rise  of 
Hassan  Ben  Ali — Power  absolute — Administration  of  Jus- 
tice— Description  of  Tunis — Soil  and  Climate — Army — Su- 
perstitions— Manners  and  Customs— Character  of  the  Moors 
— Avarice  of  the  late  Bey — Population  of  the  Regency — 
Revenue — Intemperance — Anecdote  of  Hamooda — Descrip- 
tion of  Carthage — Cisterns  and  Aqueduct — Remains  of  a 
Temple — Appearance  during  the  Fourth  and  Fifth  Centuries 


14 


CONTENTS. 


— Details  by  Edrisi — Remark  by  Chateaubriand — Bizert^- 
Utica — Hammam  Leif — Sidi  Doud — Kalibia — Ghurba — Naba! 
— Keff— Tubersoke— Herkla — Sahaleel — Monasteer — Lemp- 
ta — Agar — Demass — Salecto — WoodJif —  Gabes  — Jemme  — 
Sfaitla — Gilma — Casareene — Feriana    ....    Page  193 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

The  Regency  of  Algiers. 

Origin  of  the  term  Algiers — Importance  attached  to  its  History 
— Boundaries  of  the  State— Appearance  of  the  Town — Its 
Interior — Population — Fortifications — Narrow  Streets — His- 
tory resumed — Charles  V.  resolves  to  attack  Algiers — His 
Force — Preparations  of  Hassan  Aga — Storm  disables  the 
Spaniards— Loss  of  Ships  and  Men — Sufferings  of  the  Army 
■^Scattered  at  Sea — Fortitude  of  the  Emperor — These  Hos- 
tilities^ had  an  earlier  origin — Policy  of  Cardinal  Ximenes — 
Success  of  his  Measures — Moors  revolt,  and  invite  Barbaros- 
sa — Spaniards  deprived  of  Oran — Expedition  of  Philip  V. — 
Oran  destroyed  by  an  Earthquake — French  attack  Algiers 
under  Beaulieu — And  under  Duquesne — The  City  and  Batte- 
ries destroyed— The  Dutch,  Danes,  Swedes.  Austrians,  and 
Russians,  adopt  different  Measures — English  make  several 
efforts  to  reduce  the  Corsairs — Insults  during  the  reign  of 
George  II. — Resolutions  by  Congress  of  Vienna— Expedition 
of  Lord  Exmouth — Attack  on  Algiers — Terms  acceded  to — 
Captives  released — French  Governrhent  offended — Expedi- 
tion under  Bourmont — Account  by  Rozet — Present  state  of 
Algiers — Revenue— War  between  Algiers  and  Tunis — Bona 
— Tabarca — La  Cala  —  Constantina — Antiquities  —  Mileu — 
Remains — Bujeya — Province  of  Titteri — Bleeda  and  Medea 
— Burgh  Hamza — Auzea — Beni  Mezzab — Province  of  Tlem- 
san— Capital — Arbaal — El  Herba — Maliana — Aquae  Calidae 
Colonia — Oran — Recent  History — Inhabitants — Geeza—  Ca- 
rastel — Mostagan — Jol,  or  Julia'  Caesarea — Tefessad — Sher- 
shell — Vicinity  of  Algiers — French  Government — Attempt  at 
Colonization — Difficulties— Favourable  Climate  and  Soil — 
European  Powers  invited  to  co-operate — Late  Publications 
on  the  Subject  230 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Empire  of  Morocco. 

Boundaries  of  Morocco —Extent — Divisions  —  Fertility — Pro- 
ductions— Not  fully  cultivated — Metallic  Treasures,  Iron, 
Copper,  Gold,  and  Silver — Population— History — Aglabites 


CONTENTS. 


15 


—  Edrisites  —  Fatimites  —  Zuhites —  Hamadrans  — Abn-Has- 
sians— Abdallah-ben-Jasin — Almoravides  — Almohades  — Me- 
rinites— Oatazi — Shereef  Hassan — Various  Races  of  Men — 
Administration  of  Justice — Rude  Government — Oppression— 
Court-dress — Arrogance  of  the  Moors — Their  patient  Endu- 
rance—  Equality  of  Rank — Mode  of  eatmg — Ceremony  of  Mar- 
riage— Religion — Treatment  of  Christians  and  Jews — Reve- 
nue—Melilla —  Velez—Tetuan—Ceuta— Tangier — Arzillah — 
El  Haratch — Meheduma — Sallee  — Rabat  — Schella  — Maza- 
gan — Mogadore — Agadeer — Morocco — Population — Palace — 
Fez  —  Edifices  —  Decayed  State — Terodant  —  Mequinez  — 
Royal  Residence — Manners  of  Inhabitants   .   .   .  Page  276 

CHAPTER  X. 

Commerce  of  the  Barhary  States. 

Benefits  expected  from  a  Trade  with  Africa — Plan  of  Bonaparte 
and  Talleyrand  to  raise  in  it  colonial  Produce — French  have 
alw^ays  maintained  Commercial  Relations  with  Barbarj-^ — The 
Fertility  of  Central  Africa— The  Congo  and  Niger — Market 
at  Bengazi — Ancient  Trade  of  the  Genoese — Exports  from 
Tunis — Imports — Commercial  Lists  of  that  Pachalic — Trade 
diminished — Bad  Policy  of  the  Bey — System  of  Licenses — 
Coins,  Weights,  and  Measures  at  Tunis — Trade  of  Algiers 
carried  on  by  the  Corsairs — Imports  resemble  those  of  Tunis 
— Manufactures  and  Exports  — Mode  of  Shipbuilding — Pres- 
ent State  of  Commerce  at  Algiers — Trade  with  France,  Eng- 
land, Italy,  Spain,  and  Tunis — Trade  of  Morocco— Mogadore 
— Total  Value  of  Exports  and  Imports — Intercourse  with 
Negro  Nations — Coins,  Weights,  and  Measures — Physical 
Advantages  of  Northern  Africa — Hopes  of  Improvement  298 

CHAPTER  XI. 

Natural  History. 

Additional  Knowledge  of  Africa  supplied  by  the  French — Ge- 
ology— Great  and  Little  Atlas — Structure  of  the  former — 
Succeeded  by  Tertiary  Rocks — Supposed  Extent  of  the 
Greater  Atlas — Cyrenean  Mountains — Reflections  on  the  Des- 
ert—  Relics  of  organized  Bodies — Transition-rocks  —  Lime- 
stone— Talc-slate — Mineral  Species — Secondary  Formation — 
Limestone-shales  —  Marlstones  and  Sandstone  —  Imbedded 
Minerals  —  Extent  of  the  Little  Atlas  —  Metals  —  Tertiary 
Rocks — Calcareous  Sandstone,  Clays,  Porphyry,  Dolerite, 
Greenstone,  and  Basalt — Blue  Marl  or  London-clay — Or- 
ganic Jtemains — Volcanic  Rocks — Diluvian  Formation — Soil 


16 


CONTENTS. 


of  Metijah — Postdiluvian  Formation — Uniform  Operation 
of  General  Laws — Zoology— Scorpions  and  Serpents — 
Bfiska  —  Effah  —  Boah  —  Locusts  —  Quadrupeds — Horreh — 
Aoudad  —  Nimmer  — Heirie — Camel — Desert-horse — Birds — 
Ostrich— El  Rogr— Tibib— El  Hage— Graab  el  Sahara— Ka- 
raburno — Burourou— Botany — List  of  Plants — Hashisha — 
Euphorbium — Silphium — Medicinal  Qualities — Opinions  of 
Delia  Cella  and  Beechey — Reflections    ....    Page  309 


ENGRAVINGS. 


Map  of  the  Barbary  States  Tojace  the  Vignette. 

ViGNETTR— Fountain  on  the  Road  to  Mount  Bou  Zaria. 

Berbers  Page  65 

Moorish  Artisan  and  Female  89 

Coffee-house  and  School  at  Byrmadrais  112 

Rich  Moor  and  Female  175 

Moorish  Lady  and  Fashionable  Moor  211 

View  of  Algiers  from  the  Land  233 

View  of  a  Street  in  Algiers  238 

Gate  and  Fountain  of  Bab  El  Ouad   254 

View  of  O  ran  265 

Aqueduct  of  Mustapha  Pacha   270 


HISTORY 

AND 

PRESENT  CONDITION 

OF 

THE  BARBARY  STATES. 


CHAPTER  L 

Ancient  History. 

Contrast  between  the  present  and  ancient  Condition  of  the  Bar- 
bary  States — View  of  ancient  Manners — Remains  of  former 
Magnificence — Revolutions  in  that  Country  at  once  sudden 
and  entire — Countries  comprehended  in  Barbary — Division, 
according  to  Herodotus— Origin  of  the  term  Barbary — Opin- 
ion of  Leo  Africanus — Emigrants  from  Asia  and  Arabia — Mon- 
uments which  denote  an  Eastern  People— Colonies  from  Tyre 
— Foundation  of  Carthage  — Supposed  Extent  of  her  Territory 
— Remark  of  Polybius — Carthaginians  encouraged  Agricul- 
ture— Various  Tribes  subject  to  Carthage,  or  in  Alliance  with 
her — The  History  of  Carthage  for  a  long  time  includes  that 
of  all  the  Barbary  States— First  Attempt  on  Sicily  and  Sar- 
dinia— Ambitious  Views  of  the  Carthaginians — Provoke  the 
Resentment  of  Alexander  the  Great — First  Punic  War — Car- 
thage besieged— Second  Punic  War— Character  of  Hannibal 
— Scipio  invades  the  Carthaginian  Territory — Hannibal  re- 
called— Is  defeated  at  Zama — Third  Punic  War— Fall  of 
Carthage — History  of  Jugurtha — Subdued  by  the  Romans — 
Marius  and  Sylla— Poinpey  and  Cajsar— Conclusion. 

In  entering  upon  a  description  of  the  Barbary  States,  the 
mind  naturally  turns,  in  the  first  instance,  to  a  comparison 
of  their  actual  condition,  morally  and  politically  considered, 
with  the  civilization  to  which  they  formerly  attained  under 
more  enlightened  governors.    The  contrast  thus  presented 


18 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


IS  rendered  still  more  striking  by  a  reference  to  the  literature 
and  science  of  Europe,  of  which  the  elements  were,  in  many 
cases,  derived  from  the  northern  shores  of  Africa ;  as  well 
when  the  Phoenicians  extended  their  power  to  the  Pillars  of 
Hercules,  as  w^ien  the  lieutenants  of  the  Caliph  exercised 
authority  over  the  mixed  tribes  who  were  compelled  to  ac- 
knowledge their  dominion. 

Nowhere,  indeed,  is  the  effect  of  v/ise  institutions  more 
clearly  distinguished  than  at  the  point  whence  the  philosoph- 
ical eye  marks  the  difference  which  prevails  on  the  opposite 
sides  of  the  Mediterranean.  From  the  mountains  of  Spain 
the  spectator  may  comprehend,  at  one  glance,  the  abode  of 
nations  which,  though  in  geographical  position  not  farther 
distant  than  a  voyage  of  a  few  hours,  are  nevertheless,  in 
respect  of  religion,  learning,  and  all  the  arts  and  feelings  of 
social  life,  removed  from  one  another  by  the  lapse  of  man_ 
centuries.  In  passing  the  narrow  channel  which  separates 
these  two  quarters  of  the  globe,  the  traveller  finds  himse'^ 
carried  back  to  the  manners  and  habits  of  ages  long  past, 
and  sees,  as  it  were,  a  revival  of  scenes  which  must  have 
attracted  the  notice  of  the  earliest  historians  of  the  human 
race.  On  the  one  hand,  he  beholds  an  order  of  men  who, 
like  the  patriarchs  of  Arabia,  are  still  engaged  with  the  occu- 
pations of  the  pastoral  state,  living  in  tents,  and  sustaining 
themselves  on  the  produce  of  their  flocks.  On  the  other, 
he  may  see  a  community  devoting  their  cares  to  the  pursuits 
of  traffic,  and,  like  the  ancient  Ishmaelites,  carrying  the  com- 
modities of  foreign  lands  across  their  wide  deserts  ;  thereby 
connecting,  in  the  bonds  of  commercial  intercourse,  the  re- 
motest nations  of  the  Old  World.  In  a  third  section  of 
Northern  Africa,  his  attention  will  be  drawn  to  numerous 
tribes  who,  adopting  partially  the  usages  of  both  the  other 
classes,  refuse  to  abide  by  either ;  but,  like  the  descendants 
of  Esau,  with  their  hands  lifted  against  every  man  who  crosses 
their  path,  esteem  it  their  highest  honour  to  impose  tribute 
and  enrich  themselves  on  spoil. 

Nor  is  the  contrast  less  remarkable,  when  the  present  as- 
pect of  the  country  is  compared  with  the  magnificence  and 
cultivation  which  adorned  it  during  several  ages.  In  no 
other  region  of  the  earth  has  the  flood  of  time  committed 
ravages  so  extensive  and  deplorable,  obliterating  nearly  all 
the  traces  of  improvement,  and  throwing  down  the  noblest 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


19 


works  of  art.  Amid  the  sand,  accordingly,  which  covers  the 
remains  of  ancient  towns,  are  to  be  seen  the  finest  specimens 
of  architectural  skill,  mingled  with  the  relics  of  a  taste  and 
luxury  which  distinguished  the  later  years  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire. The  fields,  which  once  bore  the  most  abundant  crops, 
are  now  either  deformed  by  the  encroachments  of  the  Desert, 
or  overgrown  with  useless  weeds  and  poisonous  shrubs ;  while 
baths,  porticoes,  bridges,  theatres,  and  triumphal  arches,  have 
mouldered  into  ruins,  or  sunk  under  the  hands  of  the  barba- 
rous inhabitants. 

No  people,  once  civihzed,  retain  so  few  marks  of  having 
risen  above  savage  life  as  the  present  Moors  and  Arabs  of 
Barbary.  All  other  nations,  however  depressed  with  regard 
to  power,  wealth,  and  science,  continue  to  exhibit  some  proofs 
of  their  former  greatness,  and  to  vindicate,  at  least  by  their 
recollections  and  desires,  the  rank  which  their  ancestors 
enjoyed  in  ancient  times.  The  Jews,  the  Egyptians,  the 
Greeks,  and  the  Romans,  though  now  little  more  than  the 
nominal  representatives  of  distinguished  empires,  cherish  the 
memory  of  what  they  were  ;  extol  the  exploits  of  their  fathers, 
and  admire  their  works  ;  hoping  even  to  restore  their  fortunes 
and  to  emulate  their  fame  in  a  more  auspicious  age.  But 
the  rude  tribes  of  Africa  are  strangers  to  all  such  ennobling 
sentiments.  They  know  not  that  their  country  was  one  of 
the  first  seats  of  government  and  commerce,  and  took  the 
lead,  at  an  early  period,  in  all  the  attainments  which  exalt 
human  nature,  and  confer  the  highest  blessings  on  society. 
They  forget  that  Carthage  held  long  suspended  between  her- 
self and  Rome  the  scales  of  universal  dominion  ;  that  her 
provinces  were  opulent  and  enlightened;  that  she  could  boast 
of  renowned  sages  and  learned  fathers  of  the  church  ;  and 
that  some  of  her  towns  were  on  a  fooling  of  equality  with  the 
most  celebrated  in  antiquity.  Ignorant,  moreover,  of  the 
history  of  those  monuments  which  still  give  an  interest  to 
their  wild  shores  and  dreary  plains,  they  even  make  haste  to 
deface  every  thing  whereon  ingenuity  has  been  lavished,  and 
to  remove  every  token  which  might  serve  as  an  evidence 
that  men  more  polished  than  themselves  had  occupied  their 
cities  or  ploughed  their  fields. 

These  facts  will  appear  less  inexplicable,  when  it  is  called 
to  mind  that  the  revolutions  in  Barbary  have,  for  the  most 
part,  been  not  only  sudden  and  complete,  but  that,  being 


20 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


brought  about  by  nations  that  had  very  little  in  common  with 
those  which  they  subdued,  an  entire  change  was  introduced 
as  often  as  new  masters  assumed  the  government.  The 
Saracens,  for  example,  who  marched  under  the  banners  of 
Mohammed,  had  no  respect  for  the  institutions  of  the  Ro- 
mans, whether  conveyed  thither  from  Italy  or  from  the  shores 
of  the  ^gean  Sea.  On  the  contrary,  those  fierce  warriors 
felt  themselves  impelled  by  religious  zeal  to  root  out  what- 
ever had  been  planted  by  Christians — to  demolish  the  edifices 
in  which  they  had  worshipped — to  destroy  the  emblems  of 
their  faith — and  to  treat  with  scorn  every  usage  which  could 
be  traced  to  the  hated  Nazarenes.  The  barbarians  who 
humbled  the  European  portion  of  the  empire,  yielded  their 
reverence,  and  even  their  belief,  to  the  magnificent  and  im- 
posing ritual  of  the  Church.  Their  own  tenets  were  so  ill 
denned,  and  rested  on  principles  so  extremely  vague,  that 
they  were  easily  capable  of  amalgamating  with  any  other 
system  which  simply  recognised  the  doctrine  of  a  Divine 
Providence,  and  the  sanctions  of  a  future  state,  as  the  re- 
ward of  the  good  and  the  punishment  of  the  guilty.  But  the 
disciples  of  the  Koran  were  not  allowed  to  make  terms  with 
the  professors  of  any  rival  creed.  An  acknowledgment  of 
their  prophet,  as  an  inspired  messenger  sent  by  Heaven,  was 
ever  held  as  a  condition  indispensable  to  the  enjoyment  of 
security,  and  even  of  those  ordinary  privileges  in  life,  without 
which  man  may  be  said  to  forfeit  all  the  advantages  of  asso- 
ciating with  his  fellow-creatures.  Hence  the  irruption  of  the 
Arabian  host  produced,  on  the  face  of  Upper  Africa,  eflfects 
hardly  less  violent  and  universal  than  if  a  second  deluge  had 
swept  over  it.  The  past  could  not  have  been  more  profound- 
ly forgotten,  and  the  labours  of  former  generations  could 
scarcely  have  more  entirely  disappeared. 

The  countries  included  under  the  general  description  of 
Barbary,  of  which  it  is  our  intention  in  the  present  work  to 
give  an  account,  may  be  conveniently  understood  as  extend- 
ing from  the  Desert  of  Barca  on  the  east  to  Cape  Nun  on 
the  west ;  a  space  which  comprehends  the  Cyrenaica,  Trip- 
oli, Tunis,  Algiers,  and  Morocco,  and  embraces  more  than 
2,000  miles  of  coast.  It  is  true,  that  the  first  of  the  districts 
flow  specified  is  not  usually  attached  to  the  Barbary  States, 
being  more  closely  connected  with  Egypt,  both  by  its  histor* 
leal  relations  and  its  natural  affinity.    But  as  the  celebrate4 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


21 


towns,  composing  the  Pentapolis  of  ancient  authors,  were 
not  described  in  our  volume  on  the  kingdom  of  the  Pharaohs, 
we  have  thought  it  expedient  to  introduce  them  here,  in  order 
that  we  may  fully  complete  our  undertaking,  and  lay  before 
the  readers  of  the  Library  all  that  is  known  respecting  the 
great  continent  of  Africa.  The  breadth  of  the  territory  which 
thus  falls  under  our  notice  varies  very  much  at  different 
parts,  according  to  the  proximity  of  the  sandy  waste  by  which 
it  is  bounded  on  the  south  ;  and  this  uncertainty  is  still  far- 
ther increased  by  the  occasional  movements  of  the  Sahara 
itself,  which,  so  far  from  being  permanently  fixed,  is  found 
from  time  to  time  invading  the  cultivated  lands. 

According  to  Herodotus,  the  north  of  Africa  is  divided 
into  three  regions,  which  he  distinguishes  into  inhabited  land, 
the  vnld  beast  country,  and  the  desert;  an  arrangement  strictly 
corresponding  to  the  modern  classification  of  Barbary,  prop- 
erly so  called  ;  the  Blaid  el  Jerid,  or  region  of  dates  ;  and 
the  Sahara.  The  first  section  contains  Mauritania,  Numidia, 
the  territory  of  Carthage,  Cyrenaica,  and  Marmarica ;  that 
is,  the  northern  parts  of  the  present  kingdoms  of  Morocco, 
Algiers,  Tunis,  Tripoli,  and  Barca.  It  was  not  wdthout  rea- 
son that  the  father  of  history  conferred  upon  this  extensive 
tract  the  epithet  of  habitable  ;  for,  though  at  certain  parts  its 
continuity  is  broken  by  the  approach  of  the  sands,  it  is,  gen- 
erally speaking,  uncommonly  productive.  By  the  Romans, 
indeed,  it  was,  next  to  Egypt,  esteemed  their  granary  ;  and 
its  abundant  returns  long  enabled  the  Carthaginians  to  main- 
tain armies  able  to  cope  with  the  conquerors  of  Europe. 

Beyond  this  favoured  region  a  chain  of  mountains  runs 
across  the  continent,  begimung  at  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic, 
and  reaching  to  the  boundaries  of  Egypt.  The  whole  line, 
it  is  true,  has  not  been  examined  by  recent  travellers  ;  but 
the  opinions  of  the  ablest  geographers  favour  the  conclusion 
that,  though  it  occasionally  sinks  to  the  level  of  the  Desert, 
the  range  may  be  distinctly  traced  from  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  Nile  to  the  Western  Ocean.  Its  loftiest  and  broadest 
part,  bearing  the  name  of  Atlas,  occupies  the  southern  prov- 
inces of  Morocco  and  Algiers  ;  and  in  this  vicinity,  where 
water  abounds,  there  are  many  wild  beasts — the  ground  of 
the  distinction  attributed  to  it  by  Herodotus.  The  later 
Greek  and  Roman  writers  called  it  Getulia ;  and  it  is  cele- 
brated by  their  po^ts  as  the  native  haunt  of  savage  animals. 


22 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


By  the  Arabs,  however,  as  already  suggested,  it  is  named  the 
Land  of  Dates,  from  the  vast  quantity  of  that  fruit  which 
grows  there,  and  which  constitutes  an  article  of  food  and  of 
commerce  extremely  important  to  the  various  tribes  who  fre- 
quent its  borders.  The  whole  region  comprises  the  southern 
side  of  Atlas,  together  with  the  territory  lying  near  it,  ex- 
tending as  far  as  the  Great  Desert,  between  the  26th  and 
30th  degrees  of  north  latitude. 

This  country,  which  is  fertile  only  in  those  places  where 
water  is  found,  loses  itself  by  degrees  in  the  Sahara,  the  des- 
ert of  Herodotus.  Like  the  hills  just  mentioned,  this  barren 
tract  occupies  the  entire  breadth  of  Africa,  and  even  stretches 
through  Arabia  and  Persia  into  the  provinces  of  Northern 
India.  The  width  of  the  sandy  belt  is  not  everywhere  the 
same  ;  the  greatest  being  in  the  western  parts,  between  Mo- 
rocco and  the  Negro  Country,  and  the  least  between  the 
present  states  of  Tripoli  and  Kassina,  where  also  the  oases — 
those  fruitful  patches  of  well-watered  ground — occur  most 
frequently  in  the  path  of  the  caravans.  It  becomes  again 
much  broader  as  it  approaches  Egypt ;  and,  finally,  forms  a 
junction  with  the  wilderness  of  Nubia,  and  thence,  it  is  prob- 
fible,  with  the  central  portion  of  the  African  continent.* 

The  origin  of  the  term  Barbary  is  lost,  as  well  in  the  ob- 
Bcmity  of  the  original  language  as  in  the  fanciful  hypotheses 
which  have  been  framed  to  illustrate  its  meaning  and  appli* 
cation.  Leo  Africanus  has  recorded  certain  opinions  enter- 
tained on  this  subject  by  those  who  wrote  before  his  days, 
adding  his  own  reflections,  of  which  it  may  not  be  deemed 
severe  to  remark,  that  they  tend  not  in  the  slightest  degree 
to  remove  the  darkness  wherewith  he  found  the  inquiry  en- 
veloped. According  to  his  authorities,  the  word  Ber  signi- 
fies a  desert ;  while  others,  on  the  contrary,  maintain  that  it 
denotes  a  rich  soil  ;  the  duplication  of  the  term,  Berber,  con- 
veying the  happy  discovery  that  the  land  along  the  coast  r.p- 
peared  unusually  fertile,  more  especially  to  eves  fatigued 
with  the  bare  and  monotonous  aspect  of  the  wilderness.f 

*  Heeren's  Historical  Researches,  vol.  i.,  p.  7.  Herodotus, 
book  ii.,  c.  32.  and  book  iv.,  c.  81. 

t  Hujus  subfusci  colons  incolae  appellati  sunt  nomine  Barbar, 
^  verbo  Barbara  quod  eorum  idiomate  idem  sonat  quod  Latinis 
inurmuro  :  eo  quod  Africanus  sermo  Arabibus  non  aliter  sonet 
jjuam  beluarum  vox,  quae  nullo  accentu  suas  edunt  vocifera- 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


23 


Little  aid  can  be  derived  from  the  classical  authors,  who 
took  more  dehght  in  gratifying  their  imaginations  than  in  sto- 
ring their  minds  with  knowledge.  To  them  Africa  appeared 
much  in  the  same  light  as  India  and  China  did  to  the  writers 
of  the  middle  ages  ;  and  while  they  crowded  it  with  wonders 
of  magnificence  and  splendour,  they  introduced  into  it  all  the 
monstrous  and  most  terrific  productions  of  nature.  A  tradition 
had  reached  the  ears  of  Sallust,  the  historian,  that  a  mixed 
horde  of  Asiatics,  led  by  the  fabled  hero  Hercules,  after  ad- 
vancing to  the  western  shores  of  Spain  and  losing  their  chief> 
sought  employment  for  their  arms  in  Africa  ;  where,  it  was 
supposed,  they  finally  incorporated  with  the  natives,  and  as- 
sumed a  new  name.  The  Persians,  it  is  said,  upon  landing 
on  the  desolate  shore,  inverted  their  barks  and  used  them  for 
dwellings  ;  supplying,  as  the  annalist  suggests,  a  pattern  for 
the  Numidian  cottages,  even  as  they  existed  in  his  own 
days.* 

Procopius  has  pledged  his  credit  for  the  truth  of  a  legend 
still  more  ancient  than  the  one  now  quoted,  and  assures  his 
readers  that,  in  the  time  of  the  war  with  the  Vandals,  when 
he  accompanied  the  great  Belisarius  into  Africa  in  quality  of 
secretary,  there  were  yet  to  be  seen,  near  a  fountain  at  Tan- 
gier, two  columns  of  white  stone,  whereon  were  inscribed,  in 
the  Phoenician  tongue,  the  following  words  : — "  We  fly  from 
the  robber  Joshua,  the  son  of  Nun."  Whatever  accuracy 
there  may  be  in  this  statement,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the 
northern  parts  of  the  Africarr  continent  must  have  been  peo- 
pled by  emigrants  from  Asia.  If  any  confidence  can  be  placed 
in  those  traditionary  records  which  descend  from  father  to 
son,  and  constitute  the  history  of  all  barbarous  nations,  it 
must  be  believed  that  successive  multitudes,  armed  and  un- 
armed, sought  in  the  less  populous  countries  which  stretch 
out  on  either  side  of  the  IVIediterranean  a  refuge  from  the  tyr- 
anny of  Asiatic  conquerors.  The  Moors  narrate  that  their 
origin  may  be  traced  to  Sabasa,  a  district  of  Arabia,  whence 
their  ancestors,  under  their  king  Ifricki,  were  expelled  by  a 
superior  force,  and  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  seeking  a  new 

tiones.  AUi  volant  Barbar  nomen  rephcatum  esse,  eo  quod  Bar 
lingua  Arabica  desertum  denotet. — Africa  Descrip.,  hb.  prim., 
p.  12. 

*  Saliust.  Bell.  Jugurth.,c.  18. — lique  alveos  navium m\'ersos 
pro  tuguriis  habuere. 


24 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


home  in  the  remote  regions  of  the  West.  This  inroad,  which 
could  not  be  accompUshed  without  violence,  drove  the  older 
inhabitants  from  the  vicinity  of  the  coast  into  the  less  fertile 
tracts  that  border  on  the  Desert  ;  where  they  appear  to  have 
provided  for  their  defence  by  forming  caves  in  the  mountains, 
as  well  as  by  erecting  fortresses  in  strong  passes  and  ravines. 
Even  at  the  present  day,  there  are  found  in  Southern  Numidia 
the  remains  of  towns  and  castles,  which  present  an  air  of  very 
great  antiquity.  The  Arabs,  disdaining  the  protection  of 
walls  and  the  restraint  of  a  stationary  life,  carried  into  Africa 
their  wonted  habits  ;  preferring  the  moveable  tent  to  the 
"city  which  hath  foundations,"  and  watching  their  numerous 
flocks  over  unlimited  pastures,  rather  than  submitting  to  the 
drudgery  of  agriculture  or  of  manufactures.  The  earlier  in- 
habitants appear  to  have  been  less  erratic  in  their  mode  of 
life,  and,  like  the  Egyptians,  with  whom,  it  is  not  improbable, 
they  were  connected,  fond  of  excavating  dwelHngs  in  the 
rocks,  and  of  erecting  lofty  structures  for  ornament  or  safety. 
Hence  the  ruins,  to  which  allusion  has  just  been  made,  in 
the  interior  of  Morocco,  and  which  must  owe  their  origin  to 
a  people  different  from  the  Sabaeans,  who  are  supposed  to 
have  expelled  them  from  their  seats.* 

"Whoever  were  the  original  possessors  of  Africa,  it  is  con- 
firmed by  the  general  voice  of  history  that  the  Phoenicians, 
about  900  years  before  the  Christian  era,  founded  a  variety 
of  colonies  along  its  shores.  The  narrow  territory  on  the 
Asiatic  coast  originally  occupied  by  this  enterprising  people, 
who  had  already  carried  their  trade  to  all  parts  of  the  known 
world,  soon  suggested  the  expediency  of  removing  the  super- 
abundant population  to  less  crowded  countries.  Political 
broils  on  many  occasions  produced  the  same  effect  ;  sending 
the  disaffected  from  the  parent  state  to  seek  an  asylum  in  re- 
mote regions,  where  their  opinions  could  not  be  so  strictly 
watched,  and  where  their  impatient  spirits  would  be  freed 
from  the  control  of  an  imperious  master.  But  other  motives, 
unconnected  either  with  commerce  or  civil  liberty,  might  also 
operate  in  withdrawing  the  inhabitants  from  the  Phoenician 
monarchy.  Carthage,  the  most  powerful  of  their  settle- 
ments, according  to  a  tradition,  the  truth  of  which  there  is 

♦  Procop.  de  Bello  Vandal.,  lib.  ii  ,  p  37. — Morgan's  Complete 
History  of  Algiers,  p.  9. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


25 


tio  reason  to  question,  owed  its  origin  to  the  crime  of  the 
King  of  Tyre,  who,  urged  by  avarice  or  ambition,  murdered 
his  brother-in-law,  the  priest  of  Melcarth,  their  national  god. 
Many  of  the  citizens,  offended  and  alarmed  by  this  atrocityj 
resolved  to  leave  their  native  land  ;  and  placing  themselves 
under  Elissa,  the  widow  of  the  murdered  prince,  they  put 
to  sea,  and  directed  their  course  towards  Africa.  They  dis- 
embarked in  the  bay  in  which  Tuneta  and  Utica  were  already 
built ;  and  fixing  on  a  narrow  promontory  which  runs  out  into 
the  sea,  they  agreed  to  pay  for  it  a  price,  or  perhaps  an  an- 
nual tribute,  to  the  Libyans,  who  claimed  the  property  of  the 
soil.  Here  they  erected  a  place  of  defence,  to  which  they 
gave  the  name  of  Betzura,  the  fort  or  stronghold,  but  which 
the  Greeks,  according  to  their  usual  practice,  changed  into 
Byrsa,  a  term  referrible  to  their  own  tongue  ;  and  as  this 
•word,  so  interpreted,  denotes  the  skin  of  a  bullock,  they  in- 
vented the  popular  tale,  describing  how  the  Tyrians  imposed 
upon  the  unsuspecting  savages  in  the  bargain  for  their  first 

Eossession.  Appian  gravely  remarks,  that  the  Africans 
lughed  at  the  folly  of  Dido,  who  begged  only  for  so  small  a 
quantity  of  land  as  she  could  cover  with  the  hide  of  an  ox, 
but  much  admired  the  subtlety  of  her  contrivance  in  cutting 
it  into  thongs.* 

Virgil,  using  the  privilege  of  a  poet,  has  raised  upon  the 
facts  now  stated  a  beautiful  fictjon,  which,  like  the  Paradise 
Lost  of  the  great  Milton,  conveys  a  commentary  so  striking 
as  to  supersede,  in  ardent  minds,  all  recollection  of  the  more 
scanty  record  which  it  was  meant  to  illustrate.  Regardless 
of  dates,  he  connects  the  voyage  of  ^neas,  after  the  fall  of 

*  Appian  in  Lybicis. 

The  word  Betzura,  Bitzra,  or  Bozrah,  is  of  Hebrew  etymolo- 
gy, and  signifies  a  fort  or  castle.  It  is  the  name  of  the  Idumean 
capital,  the  chief  town  in  the  country  of  Edom. — Morgan,  p.  10. 

The  legend  of  the  ox-hide  seems  to  have  gone  round  the  world. 
Hussun  Subah,  the  chief  of  the  Assassins,  is  said  to  have  acqui- 
red in  the  same  manner  tlie  hill-fort  of  AUahamowt.  The  Per- 
sians maintain  that  the  British  got  Calcutta  in  the  same  way. 
An  English  tradition  avers  that  it  was  by  a  similar  trick  Hen- 
gist  and  Horsa  got  a  settlement  in  the  Isle  of  Thanet ;  and  it  is 
somewhere  stated,  that  this  was  the  mode  by  which  one  of  our 
colonies  in  America  obtained  their  land  of  the  Indies.— Foreign 
Quarterly  Review,  No.  xxvii.,  p.  213. 


26 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


Troy,  with  the  expedition  of  the  Tyrian  princess  to  the  coast 
of  Libya,  and  thereby  interests  his  reader  in  the  early  fates 
of  those  two  proud  commonwealths,  whose  mutual  strife  so 
long  agitated  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  died  its 
waves  with  blood.  The  accuracy  with  which  the  bay  of  Car- 
thage is  described  may  justify  a  quotation,  which,  though  not 
comparable  to  the  splendid  original,  will  communicate  at  least 
a  topographical  outline  of  the  scene  : — 

"  Within  a  long  recess  there  lies  a  bay : 
An  island  shades  it  from  the  rolling  sea, 
And  forms  a  port  secure  for  ships  to  ride. 
Broke  by  the  jutting  land  on  either  side, 
In  double  streams  the  briny  waters  glide 
Betwixt  two  rows  of  rocks :  a  sylvan  scene 
Appears  above,  and  groves  for  ever  green  : 
A  grot  is  formed  beneath,  with  mossy  seats, 
To  rest  the  Nereids,  and  exclude  the  heats  : 
Down  through  the  crannies  of  the  living  walls. 
The  crystal  streams  descend  in  murm'ring  falls  : 
No  halsers  iieeil  to  bind  the  vessels  here. 
Nor  bearded  anchors  ;  for  no  storms  they  fear."* 

■  It  has  been  remarked,  that  Carthage  was  from  the  begin- 
ning an  independent  state,  after  the  model  of  the  trading 
towns  which  were  planted  along  the  Phoenician  coast.  Tyre 
and  her  colony,  without  claiming  dominion  or  acknowledging 
subjection,  observed  to  each  other  that  mutual  regard  which, 
in  those  early  times,  was  expected  between  communities 
sprung  from  the  same  root.  The  former,  as  Herodotus  ob- 
serves, constantly  refused  to  Cambyses  the  use  of  her  fleet 
whenever  he  wished  to  attack  Carthage  ;  and  the  latter 
granted  a  place  of  refuge  to  the  inhabitants  of  Tyre  when 
that  city  was  besieged  by  Alexander  the  Great.  She  hke- 
wise  continued  a  long  time  to  her  neighbours  the  pacific  pol- 
icy which  her  original  condition  rendered  expedient.  Built 
on  the  margin  of  an  extensive  continent,  peopled  by  fierce 
and  lawless  tribes,  she  endeavoured  to  maintain  a  good  un- 
derstanding with  the  original  nations  that  occupied  the  ad- 
joining territory  ;  and  it  is  said  that  the  rent  which  she  con- 
sented to  pay  to  the  lords  of  the  soil  was  continued  till  the 

Dryden's  translation  of  the  iEneid,  book  i,,  line  228,  &c. 
"  Est  in  secessu  longo  locus ;  insula  portum 
JJfficit  objectu  laterum,"  &c. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


27 


days  of  Darius  Hystaspes.  There  are,  no  doubt,  in  the  ear- 
liest history  of  her  citizens,  unquestionable  proofs  that  she 
departed  from  this  amicable  policy  as  soon  as  she  found  her- 
self sufficiently  strong  to  dispute  the  pretensions  of  the  Liby- 
an princes,  and  even  had  recourse  to  arms,  in  order  to  vindi- 
cate her  independence,  or  to  extend  her  borders.  Opposed 
to  uncivilized  hordes,  the  Carthaginian  generals  usually  found 
their  efforts  crowned  with  success  ;  though  it  is  admitted 
that,  by  their  conquests,  they  only  obtained  subjects  who  em- 
braced every  oportunity  to  throw  off  their  yoke. 

No  records  are  left  which  might  enable  the  historian  at 
this  distant  period  to  determme  the  extent  to  which  they  car- 
ried their  triumphs  over  the  natives,  or  what  were  the  con- 
ditions proposed  to  the  vanquished  as  the  vassals  of  this  ri- 
sing republic.  Those  who  imagine  that  they  subdued  all 
Barbary,  or  indeed  any  very  considerable  part  of  it,  are 
chargeable  with  a  great  mistake ;  though  some  writers  have 
gone  so  far  as  to  assert  that  the  whole  of  Northern  Africa 
submitted  to  their  sway,  and  that  the  Mauritanian  princes 
consented  to  receive  their  diadems  from  the  senate  of  Car- 
thage. The  Latin  authors,  however,  do  not  warrant  the  con- 
clusion that  they  were  at  any  time  masters  of  more  land  than 
that  which  constituted  the  provmce  usually  associated  with 
their  name,  together  with  the  principal  harbours  between  the 
eastern  confines  of  Tripoli  and  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic. 
There  is  besides  good  reason  to  infer,  that  in  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances their  authority  did  not  extend  much  beyond  the 
walls  of  their  seaport  towns,  especially  of  those  which,  more 
with  the  view  of  pursuing  commerce  than  of  enlarging  their 
dominions,  or  of  establishing  political  power,  they  had  been 
permitted  to  erect  within  the  boundaries  of  Numidia.* 

The  writings  of  Polybius  afford  the  most  authentic  infor- 
mation that  can  now  be  obtained  respecting  the  territorial 
possessions  of  Carthage  at  the  time  when  she  first  began  to 
attract  the  attention  of  Europe.  Speaking  of  the  Africans 
who  fought  in  her  armies,  he  always  makes  a  distinction  be- 
tween her  proper  subjects  and  the  free  people  who  served  for 
pay.  The  former  he  universally  calls  Libyans,  never  apply- 
ing to  them  any  more  particular  or  characteristic  appellation ; 

♦  Heeren's  Reflections  on  the  Politics,  Intercourse,  and 
Trade  of  the  Ancient  Nations  of  Africa,  p.  53,  <Scc. 


2S 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


while  on  the  mercenaries  he  confers  the  epithet  of  Nomadea 
or  Numidians — a  title  which  suited  a  great  variety  of  tribes 
who  followed  the  same  wandering  mode  of  life,  inherited,  it 
is  probable,  from  their  Arabian  ancestors.  These  roving 
clans  acknowledged  no  master — thinking  that  they  humbled 
themselves  sufficiently  when  they  condescended  to  use  their 
arms  for  a  stated  recompense,  under  the  banner  of  their  al- 
lies. The  others,  who  practised  husbandry,  having  settled 
abodes  and  a  fixed  property,  consented  to  purchase  protection 
by  surrendering  their  precarious  freedom,  as  well  as  by  agree- 
ing to  pay  an  annual  tax  levied  upon  the  produce  of  their 
lands.  It  is  accordingly  observed  by  the  historian  just  ci- 
ted, that  the  tribute  imposed  upon  the  Libyans  was  for  the 
most  part  paid  in  grain  ;  and,  as  has  been  already  stated,  it 
was  principally  with  the  produce  of  their  industry  that  the 
Carthaginians  were  enabled  to  maintain  those  numerous  ar- 
mies with  which  they  made  their  conquests  in  foreign  coun- 
tries. 

It  would  appear  that  these  Libyans  were  indebted  to  the 
Tyrian  colonists  for  the  important  knowledge  of  agriculture, 
which  in  all  ages  has  proved  the  main  source  of  civilization 
and  social  improvement.  In  the  time  of  Herodotus,  the 
most  flourishing  era  of  the  Carthaginian  state,  no  people 
who  cultivated  land  was  to  be  found  beyond  the  limits  of 
their  territory  ;  all  the  native  tribes  between  Egypt  and  the 
Lesser  Syrtis  being  still  in  the  more  primitive  condition  of 
shepherds,  removing  from  place  to  place  over  the  wide  sur- 
face of  the  Desert.  But  immediately  to  the  westward,  he 
remarks,  "  we  find  nations  who  till  the  ground."  Of  these 
he  specifies  three — the  Maxyes,  the  Zaucees,  and  the  Zy- 
gantes — all  of  whom  appear  to  have  been  very  recently  re- 
claimed from  the  rudest  habits  of  savage  life,  as  they  still 
continued  to  cut  their  hair  in  the  most  fantastic  manner,  and 
to  paint  their  bodies  with  vermilion.  The  Maxyes,  to  whom 
these  remarks  principally  apply,  pretended  that  they  were 
sprung  from  the  Trojans.  Their  country,  we  are  farther 
told,  and  indeed  all  the  western  parts  of  Libya,  are  much 
more  woody  and  infested  with  wild  beasts  than  that  whefe 
the  Nomades  reside  ;  for  the  abode  of  these  latter,  in  pro- 
portion as  it  stretches  to  the  eastward,  becomes  more  low 
and  sandy.  From  hence,  continues  Herodotus,  towards  the 
west,  where  those  dwell  who  plough  the  land,  the  region  ia. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


29 


mountainous,  full  of  trees,  and  abounding  with  wild  beasts. 
Here  are  found  serpents  of  an  enormous  size,  lions,  ele- 
phants, bears,  asps,  and  asses  with  horns.* 

This  author,  who  did  not  travel  in  the  western  districts  of 
Africa,  must  have  received  the  materials  of  that  part  of  bis 
history  which  has  now  been  quoted  from  native  writers,  to 
whose  authority,  indeed,  he  occasionally  refers.  There  can 
be  no  doubt,  however,  that  there  were,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Atlas  range,  many  tribes  whose  names  had  not  reached  him, 
and  who,  from  time  to  time,  appear  in  the  muster-roll  of  the 
Carthaginian  army.  Some  notion  of  their  numbers  may  be 
formed  from  the  fact  mentioned  by  Polybius,  that,  in  the  un- 
fortunate war  which  the  republic  waged  with  her  mercenary 
troops,  after  the  termination  of  her  first  conflict  with  Rome, 
no  fewer  than  70,000  of  them  were  in  the  field. t 

To  prevent  such  insurrections,  which  threatened  the  sta- 
bility of  their  power,  the  rulers  of  the  commonwealth  en- 
couraged the  settlement  of  small  colonies  of  citizens  among 
the  agricultural  nations  on  their  southern  frontier.  Adoptmg 
in  this  respect  the  policy  of  their  European  rivals,  they  en- 
deavoured to  gain  the  support  of  their  neighbours,  by  extend- 
ing to  them  the  benefit  of  their  institutions  and  the  honour 
of  their  kmdred.  This  expedient  gave  rise  to  a  distinction 
in  the  African  race,  which  is  marked  in  history  as  the  Liby- 
Phosnician — a  class  who  differed  from  the  original  inhabi- 
tants of  the  country,  of  which  ihey  are  said  to  have  occu- 
pied the  richest  and  most  fruitful  parts.  This  circumstance 
has  not  escaped  the  notice  of  Aristotle,  who  describes  it  as 
the  surest  method  for  retaining  the  good-will  of  the  people  ; 
as  it  prevented  the  too  great  increase  of  the  lower  orders  in 
the  capital,  and,  by  a  proper  distribution  of  lands,  placed  the 
poorer  citizens  in  better  circumstances.  In  this  way,  says 
he,  Carthage  preserved  the  love  of  her  subjects.  She  con- 
tinually sends  out  colonies  of  the  townsmen  into  the  districts 
around  her,  and  thereby  makes  them  men  of  property  ;  the 
best  proof  of  a  mild  and  intelligent  government,  who  assist 
the  poor  by  inuring  them  to  labour. t 

During  several  centuries,  the  history  of  Carthage  compre- 
hended that  of  the  whole  of  Northern  Africa,  the  scanty  '■d- 

*  Herodot.,  Melpomene,  c.  186-193. 

t  Polyb.,  Ub.  i..  c.  6. 

i  Anst.  Poiit.,  lib.  ii,,  c.  11. 

c  a 


30 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


mains  of  which  can  now  only  be  gleaned  fronm  the  volumes 
of  the  Greek  and  Latin  authors.  It  is  much  to  be  re- 
gretted that  all  the  works  of  native  writers  have  perished  ; 
having  fallen  a  prey  to  various  accidents,  as  well  perhaps  as 
to  the  neglect  of  their  haughty  conquerors,  who  had  no  de- 
sire that  the  gallant  efforts  of  a  falling  state  should  be  re- 
corded by  any  less  partial  pen  than  their  own.  In  the  days 
of  Sallust,  several  records  were  still  in  existence,  from  which 
he  drew  some  of  the  facts  which  he  has  incorporated  in  his 
Life  of  Jugurtha  ;  but  the  ruin  of  the  noble  family  to  whom 
they  belonged  gave  occasion  to  their  loss,  which  has  since 
proved  irretrievable.  We  learn,  however,  from  the  annals 
of  Josephus,  as  well  as  from  a  few  incidental  notices  in  the 
Sacred  Scriptures,  that,  about  600  years  before  the  Christian 
era,  the  Carthaginians  had  attained  to  such  a  degree  of  power 
as  to  brave  the  resentment  of  the  King  of  Babylon.  This 
monarch,  as  has  been  already  mentioned,  laid  siege  to  Tyre, 
which,  after  thirteen  years'  labour,  he  reduced  to  submission  ; 
but  he  did  not  accomplish  his  object  without  encountering 
the  arms  of  the  African  colonists,  who  sent  both  sea  and 
land  forces  to  assist  their  mother-country.* 

After  the  lapse  of  half  a  century,  the  people  of  Carthage, 
who,  like  the  nation  whence  they  sprang,  knew  the  value  of 
commerce,  endeavoured  to  establish  their  authority  in  the 
islands  of  the  Mediterranean.  Their  first  attempts  on  Sicily 
and  Sardinia  were  attended  with  so  little  success,  that  a  dis- 
turbance was  excited  between  those  who  planned  the  war 
and  the  leaders  who  were  appointed  to  conduct  it.  But  the 
object  appeared,  in  the  eyes  of  the  senate,  to  possess  so 
much  importance,  that  new  efforts  were  made,  and  larger 
armies  were  raised,  in  order  to  bring  it  to  a  favourable  issue. 
It  is  related  by  Diodorus  Siculus,  that,  in  the  year  of  Rome 
280,  Amilcar,  at  the  head  of  300,000  men,  invaded  Sicily, 

*  Joseph.  Cont.  Apion.,  lib.  i.  Ezekiel,  chapters  xxvi.,  xxvii, 
xxviii.,  xxix.  The  details  given  by  the  prophet  in  the  27th  chap- 
ter throw  more  light  on  the  trade  of  Tyre  than  can  now  be  ob' 
tained  from  any  other  author.  Sallusi  (.lugurth.,  c.  17)  writes 
as  follows  :— "  Bed  qui  mortales  initio  Africam  habuerint, 
quique  postea  accesserint,  aut  quomodo  inter  ee  permixti  sint, 
tamen  uti  ex  libris  Punicis,  qui  Regis  Hiempsalis  dicebantur 
interpretatum  nobis  est ;  utique  rem  sese  habere  cultores  ejus 
terra  putant,  quara  paucissimis  dicam." 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


31 


carrying  with  him  2,000  ships  of  war,  and  a  greater  number 
of  transports.  These  immense  preparations,  however,  did 
not  secure  a  more  fortunate  result.  Losses  at  sea  were 
succeeded  by  more  serious  disasters  on  shore  ;  and  Gelo,  ihe 
sovereign  of  the  island,  adding  stratagem  to  force,  overcame 
the  Carthaginian  commander,  and  dispersed  his  mighty  host. 
But  fifty  years  had  not  passed  when  assimilar  expedition  was 
fitted  out  under  Hamilco,  who,  though  his  operations  in  the 
field  of  battle  were  attended  with  greater  prosperity,  did  not 
in  the  end  accomplish  more  for  the  commonwealth  whose 
sword  he  drew.  Dionysius,  who  was  obliged  to  surrender 
his  capital  to  the  invaders,  soon  saw  his  cause  avenged  by 
the  ravages  of  a  pestilence,  which  cut  off  their  general,  with 
a  large  proportion  of  his  followers. 

These  reverses  did  not  dishearten  the  rulers  of  Carthage, 
who,  in  the  meanwhile,  were  gradually  extending  their  in- 
fluence aloncr  the  shores  of  Africa,  and  on  the  opposite  coast 
of  Spain.  Their  commerce,  too,  had  already  become  so 
flourishing  as  to  afford  the  means  of  enlisting,  not  only  the 
warlike  tribes  of  their  own  deserts,  but  also  Spaniards, 
Gauls,  Ligurians,  Sardinians,  and  Corsicans.  With  these 
forces,  they  in  process  of  time  found  themselves  masters  of 
most  of  the  Mediterranean  islands,  and  at  length  attracted 
the  notice  of  the  Romans,  whose  dominion  began  to  be  felt 
at  the  extreme  parts  of  Italy.  If  we  yield  to  the  authority 
of  Polybius,  we  must  admit  that  the  consular  government,  a 
hundred  years  earlier,  had  solicited  the  friendship  of  the 
Carthaginians  ;  but,  whatever  may  be  thought  of  his  state- 
ment, it  seems  perfectly  clear  that,  about  three  centuries 
and  a  half  before  the  reign  of  Augustus,  a  treaty  was  formed 
between  the  two  republics. 

This  was,  indeed,  the  age  of  freedom  and  vigour  to  both, 
though  it  cannot  be  averred  that  the  generosity  of  either 
kept  pace  with  their  advancement  in  national  strength  and 
public  liberty.  It  has  been  justly  remarked,  that  those  com- 
munities which  are  the  most  free  are  also  the  most  subject 
to  violent  passions  and  hasty  resolves  ;  and  we  find,  accord- 
ingly, that  the  Carthaginians  were  not  slow  to  employ  their 
arms  wherever  they  imagined  they  had  an  injury  to  punish 
or  an  advantage  to  gain.  For  example,  they  had  already 
enslaved  the  people  of  Boetica,  a  Spanish  province,  whose 
privileges  were  not  saved  by  their  courage  ;  and  they  had 


32 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


formed  an  alliance  with  Xerxes,  and  lost  a  battle  against 
Gelo,  the  same  day  that  the  Lacedaemonians  fell  at  Ther- 
mopylae. They  had  tried  the  fortune  of  war,  too,  with 
Agathocles  in  Africa,  and  Pyrrhus  in  Sicily,  before  they 
came  to  blows  with  their  more  formidable  antagonists  on  the 
banks  of  the  Tiber. 

No  other  event  of  great  importance  occurred  prior  to  the 
first  Punic  war,  if  we  except  the  attempt  made  to  relieve 
Tyre  when  about  to  be  finally  overthrown  by  Alexander  the 
Macedonian.  That  ambitious  prmce,  irritated  by  the  inter- 
ference of  a  maritime  pov/er  whose  territory  he  had  not  yet 
menaced,  resolved  to  inflict  on  them  a  signal  chastisement ; 
but  his  thoughts  being  diverted  to  other  objects,  he  allowed 
them  to  enjoy  an  exemption  from  the  fate  which  he  had  pre- 
pared for  their  kinsmen  in  the  East.  It  was  reserved  for 
the  Romans  to  impose  a  check  upon  the  growing  influence 
and  prosperity  of  these  Tyrian  colonists. 

The  ostensible  cause  of  quarrel  was  an  armed  interposi- 
tion, on  the  part  of  the  Carthaginians,  in  behalf  of  Hiero, 
king  of  Syracuse,  against  the  Mamertines,  who  were  allies 
of  Rome.  It  belongs  not  to  our  undertaking  to  describe  the 
battles  by  sea  and  land,  the  sieges  and  negotiations,  which 
filled  up  the  long  space  of  twenty-four  years.  Suffice  it  to 
mention,  that  Regulus,  who  commanded  the  Romans,  hav- 
ing reduced  Tunis,  appeared  before  the  gates  of  the  capital, 
and  summoned  it  to  surrender.  The  citizens,  alarmed  at  the 
rapid  progress  of  the  enemy,  solicited  peace  on  equitable 
terms ;  but  the  victor,  eager  to  accomplish  the  entire  con- 
quest of  their  country,  insisted  on  such  conditions  as  deter- 
mined them  to  continue  the  war.  At  this  crisis  of  their 
affairs,  relief  was  brought  to  them  by  a  Lacedaemonian  cap- 
tain, named  Xantippus,  who  engaged  the  conquerors  under 
the  walls  of  Tunis,  destroyed  their  legions,  and  took  the 
proconsul  prisoner.  Regulus  was  conducted  as  a  captive 
into  the  city  which  he  had  hoped  to  enter  in  triumph,  and 
is  said  to  have  been  exposed  to  much  indignity  as  well  as  to 
great  bodily  suffering.  But  no  degree  of  torture  or  reproach 
could  overcome  his  patriotism  ;  for,  upon  consenting  to  ac- 
company the  Carthaginian  ambassadors  to  Rome,  he  ex- 
horted the  senate  to  refuse  peace,  and  even  to  prosecute 
hostilities  with  increased  vigour.  His  counsel  was  adopted, 
though  at  the  expense  of  his  life,  and  finally  enabled  his 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


33 


countrymen  to  conclude  a  more  advantageous  treaty  with 
their  humbled  foes. 

The  interval  of  peace  with  her  European  rivals  was  not 
altogether  a  period  of  tranquillity  to  Carthage.  The  Nu- 
midians,  taking  advantage  of  her  weakness,  endeavoured  to 
limit  her  pretensions  in  Africa,  and  to  recover  the  independ- 
ence which  they  had  gradually  forfeited  during  the  growing 
ascendency  of  her  power.  She  soon  found  it  necessary, 
moreover,  to  renew  the  struggle  in  Sicily,  and  to  engage  in 
a  war  with  a  sovereign  of  that  island,  which,  Livy  informs 
us,  lasted  five  years.  The  Romans,  who  had  long  relin- 
quished the  moderation  which  guided  their  proceedings  in 
the  infancy  of  their  commonwealth,  perceived  that  an  oppor- 
tunity was  thereby  presented  to  them  for  obtaining  posses- 
sion of  Sardinia — an  acquisition  which  appeared  in  their 
eyes  so  much  the  more  valuable,  that  the  people  with  whom 
they  now  found  themselves  doomed  to  contend  for  empire 
still  retained  several  important  settlements  in  the  adjoining 
seas.  Under  some  frivolous  pretext,  accordingly,  they  in- 
vaded the  Carthaginian  colony,  and  could  boast  that  they 
wrested  it  from  its  legitimate  owners  during  the  subsistence 
of  a  regular  treaty.  The  injured  party,  however,  could  not, 
at  that  moment,  have  recourse  to  the  usual  means  of  redress. 
They  even  condescended  to  purchase  the  forbearance  of 
their  insolent  neighbours,  and  to  remit  money  to  Rome  in 
name  of  tribute  or  compensation.  But,  pursuing  a  policy 
which  sometimes  confounded  the  less  subtle  genius  of  their 
opponents,  they  sought  new  sources  of  wealth  in  Spain,  the 
mines  of  which  filled  their  treasury  with  the  precious  metals, 
and  enabled  them  to  call  into  the  field  very  numerous 
armies,  and  cover  the  sea  with  their  fleets.  Amilcar  was 
intrusted  with  this  important  enterprise,  which  was  after- 
ward so  ably  conducted  by  his  renowned  son  Hannibal ;  who, 
by  taking  Saguntum,  gave  occasion  to  the  second  Punic  war. 

This  celebrated  leader  has  been  esteemed  by  many  able 
judges  the  greatest  general  of  antiquity ;  and,  assuredly,  if  he 
does  not  win  more  affection  than  any  other,  he  excites  higher 
admiration.  He  possessed  neither  the  heroism  of  Alexander 
nor  the  universal  genius  of  Caesar  ;  but,  as  a  military  man, 
he  surpassed  them  both.  In  ordinary  cases,  it  is  the  love 
of  country  or  of  glory  which  conducts  commanders  to  great 
achievements  :  Hannibal  alone  was  stimulated  by  hatred  and 


34 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


the  desire  of  revenge.  Inflamed  with  this  acrimonious 
spirit,  he  set  out  from  the  extremity  of  Spain  with  an  army 
composed  of  a  great  variety  of  nations  ;  passed  the  Pyrenees  ; 
marched  through  Gaul ;  and  arrived  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps. 
These  trackless  mountains,  defended  by  fierce  barbarians, 
were  in  vain  opposed  to  his  progress.  He  crossed  their  icy 
summits  and  perilous  ravines,  presented  himself  in  Italy  as 
if  he  had  descended  from  the  clouds,  and  annihilated  the  first 
consular  army  on  the  banks  of  the  Ticinus.  Following  up 
his  victory,  he  gained  another  triumph  at  Trebia,  a  third  at 
Thrasymene,  and  in  the  fourth,  which  he  accomplished  at 
Cannse,  he  threatened  the  existence  of  Rome  itself.  During 
sixteen  years  he  prosecuted  the  war,  unaided,  in  the  heart 
of  the  enemy's  countr}',  driving  the  greatest  generals  from 
the  field,  and  inspiring  the  legions  with  a  degree  of  fear  or 
caution  which  they  had  not  known  since  the  invasion  of 
Pyrrhus. 

To  withdraw  this  conqueror  from  thfe  Roman  provinces,  it 
was  resolved  to  send  an  army  into  Africa.  Scipio,  whose 
reputation  for  urbanity,  moderation,  and  self-restraint,  has 
reached  our  own  times,  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
expedition,  with  the  view  of  realizing  a  plan  which  had  ori- 
ginated with  himself  as  the  most  likely  means  for  subduing 
Hannibal.  The  landing  was  effected  without  any  loss  ;  for 
consternation  had  pervaded  all  the  coast,  and  covered  the 
roads  with  fugitives,  who  fled  from  the  towns  without  know- 
ing where  to  seek  an  asylum.  The  same  alarm  had  ex- 
tended to  Carthage  itself ;  the  citizens  ran  to  arms  ;  the 
gates  were  shut ;  and  the  usual  preparations  were  made  to 
repel  an  assault  or  to  withstand  a  siege.  But  Scipio  was  not 
yet  in  a  condition  to  attack  the  capital.  Having  sent  his 
fleet  towards  Utica,  he  himself  proceeded  by  land  to  the  same 
point,  where  he  was  joined  by  Masinissa,  the  king  of  Numi- 
dia,  with  a  large  body  of  cavalry.  This  chief,  formerly  the 
ally  of  the  Carthaginians,  had  made  war  against  the  Romans 
in  Spain  ;  and  having,  by  a  succession  of  singular  events,  re- 
peatedly lost  and  recovered  his  dominions,  he  had  once  more 
fallen  a  victim  to  certain  intrigues,  and  been  deprived  of  his 
crown.  Syphax,  prince  of  the  Getulians,  who  had  married 
Sophonisba,  the  daughter  of  Asdrubal,  was  put  in  pos- 
session of  his  lands — an  injustice  which  alienated  him  so 
much  from  the  ruling  government,  that  he  declared  himself 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


35 


ready  to  co-operate  with  the  invaders  against  those  tyrants 
of  Africa.* 

After  some  battles  which  terminated  in  his  favour,  Scipio 
invested  Utica  with  the  resolution  to  take  it ;  though  Asdru- 
bal  and  Syphax  were  encamped  in  the  vicinity.  As  the  tents 
of  the  latter  were  formed  of  mats  and  reeds,  after  the  Nu- 
midian  manner,  the  Romans  set  them  on  fire,  and  thereby 
destroyed  the  lives  of  40,000  men.  But  the  Carthaginians, 
so  far  from  yielding  to  misfortune,  saw  in  this  event  only  a 
more  urgent  reason  for  increasing  their  levies  and  encoura- 
ging the  fidelity  of  their  confederates  ;  though  they  had  the 
mortification  to  discover,  on  most  occasions,  that  their  raw 
troops,  and  the  undisciplined  valour  of  the  Getulians,  could 
not  maintain  their  ground  against  the  steady  courage  of  the 
legions.  Syphax,  being  united  to  a  daughter  of  Carthage, 
would  not  desert  the  cause  of  that  republic,  convinced  as  he 
was  that  its  fall  would  crush  all  his  hopes,  and  perhaps  bury 
his  sovereignty  m  its  ruins  ;  and  accordingly,  though  Scipio 
had  repeatedly  dispersed  the  armies  opposed  to  him,  and  even 
made  himself  master  of  Tunis,  the  barbarian  prince  resolved 
once  more  to  face  the  victors,  and,  if  possible,  save  the  cap- 
ital from  destruction.  He  entered  into  the  combat  with  a 
bravery  worthy  of  a  better  fate  ;  and,  when  deserted  by  his 
soldiers  in  the  heat  of  the  battle,  he  rushed  alone  upon  the 
Roman  squadrons,  hoping  that  his  men,  ashamed  of  having 
abandoned  their  king,  would  return  and  die  with  him.  But 
in  this  expectation  he  was  grievously  disappointed  ;  the  cow- 
ards continued  their  flight ;  and,  his  horse  being  killed,  he 
fell  alive  into  the  hands  of  his  mortal  enemy  Masinissa.f  ' 

A  tale  of  romance,  afifectingly  told  by  Livy,  occupies  the 
short  period  which  precedes  the  return  of  Hannibal  de- 
fend his  native  country.  Sophonisba,  whom  the  fortune  of 
war  soon  afterward  threw  into  the  same  hands  with  her  hus- 
band, was  induced  or  compelled  to  become  the  wife  of  Masi- 
nissa  ;  who,  upon  discovering  that  the  virtuous  and  exemplary 
Scipio  was  displeased  with  this  union,  from  the  fear  that  her 
influence  would  draw  him  to  the  side  of  the  enemy,  sent  her 
a  cup  of  poison,  in  order  that  she  might  free  herself  from  the 
apprehension  of  a  still  greater  disgrace. t 

Livius,  Ub.  xxi.,  c.  1-54.  f  Ibid.,  lib.  xxx.,  c.  IJ. 

t  Livius,  lib.  xxx.,  c.  12.  The  narrative  begins  at  the  3d  and 
continues  to  the  end  of  the  12th  chapter. 


36» 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


Finding  their  affairs  fast  becoming  desperate,  the  magisi 
trates  of  Carthage  sent  orders  to  their  great  general  to  aban- 
don Italy  and  hasten  to  their  relief.  Upon  receiving  this 
message,  he  is  said  to  have  shed  tears  of  rage,  to  have  re- 
proached the  imbecility  of  his  government,  and  to  have  bit- 
terly condemned  himself  for  not  marching  to  Rome  after  the 
battle  of  Cannae.  Never,  it  was  remarked,  did  a  man,  quit- 
ting the  land  of  his  birth  to  go  into  exile,  experience  more 
profound  grief  than  Hannibal  endured  when  he  left  a  foreign 
shore  to  return  home.  He  had  sailed  from  Africa  when  a 
boy  ;  had  been  thirty-six  years  away  ;  and  was  about  to  find 
strangers  among  the  nearest  relatives  of  his  family.  At  length 
he  disembarked  on  the  shore  of  his  fathers,  at  the  head  of 
the  veterans  who  had  followed  him  in  Spain,  Gaul,  and  Italy  ; 
who  could  show  more  insignia  of  honour,  taken  from  pretors^ 
generals,  and  consuls,  than  were  carried  before  all  the  dig^ 
nitaries  of  Rome  :  and  in  the  city,  to  the  protection  of  which 
he  was  now  advancing,  the  temples,  crowded  with  the  spoils 
of  her  mighty  enemy,  were  perhaps  the  only  places  he  could 
recognise  amid  the  scenes  of  his  youth.* 

But  the  fortune  of  Hannibal  did  not  accompany  him  into 
Africa.  The  battle  of  Zama  decided  the  fate  of  Carthage 
and  of  the  most  renowned  of  her  sons  ;  putting  an  end,  at 
the  same  time,  to  the  second  Punic  war.  The  vanquished 
sued  for  peace  and  obtained  it,  but  on  such  terms  as  announced 
their  approaching  humiliation ;  while  their  illustrious  gen- 
eral, not  venturing  to  rely  on  the  generosity  of  an  irritated 
and  fickle  populace,  retired  to  Asia  Minor,  where  he  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  days  in  vain  attempts  to  form  a  coalition 
against  the  Romans.  Nor  did  he  find  the  hatred  of  that 
people  more  relenting  than  his  own.  On  the  contrary, 
the  emissaries  of  the  senate  pursued  him  from  one  court  to  an- 
other, till  he  was  on  the  point  of  being  delivered  up  into  their 
hands,  when,  according  to  the  custom  of  his  age  and  nation, 
he  brought  his  Ufe  to  a  close  by  swallowing  poison. 

The  events  now  recorded  took  place  about  200  years  be- 
fore our  era,  according  to  the  more  common  calculation. 
Half  a  century  passed  without  any  open  rupture  between  the 
two  republics  ;  and  the  wiser  statesmen  at  Rome  had  begun 

*  Chateaubriand's  Travels  in  Greece,  Palestine,  Egypt,  and 
Barbary,  vol.  ii.,  p.  259,  second  edition,  Loudon,  1812. 


^  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


97 


to  perceive  an  advantage  in  having  their  power  balanced  by 
an  active  rival,  whose  ambition  would  never  permit  the  vigi- 
lance of  their  government  to  sleep,  nor  their  citizens  to  sink 
into  a  supine  security,  the  parent  of  luxury  and  weakness. 
But  the  elder  Cato,  with  a  republican  severity  which  made 
little  allowance  for  the  rights  of  other  states,  represented  the 
destruction  of  Carthage  as  essential  to  the  permanence  and 
greatness  of  the  Roman  power  :  and  his  inveterate  hatred  at 
length  proved  trmmphant.  War  was  accordingly  declared, 
on  grounds  which  had  in  them  more  of  personal  enmity  than 
of  public  wisdom  ;  and  the  last  struggle  with  the  people  of 
Dido,  the  noblest  colony  of  Tyre,  was  forthwith  begun. 

The  success  which  attended  the  soldiers  of  Italy  on  this 
occasion,  indicated  not  so  much  their  own  advancement  in 
the  militarj'  art,  as  the  failure  of  energy  and  national  strength 
on  the  side  of  their  opponents.  The  Carthaginians  were 
divided  by  factions  and  paralyzed  by  domestic  broils  ;  their 
allies  became  faithless,  their  fleets  were  not  properly  equipped, 
and  their  land-forces  reposed  no  confidence  in  their  leaders  : 
nor  was  it  until  they  discovered  that  the  most  consummate 
perfidy  was  practised  against  them^  that  they  would  consent 
to  act  with  unanimity  for  the  preser\  ation  of  their  honour, 
property,  and  life.  The  consuls  Marcius  and  Manilius,  who 
appeared  under  their  walls,  were  vigorously  repulsed  ;  and 
the  genius  of  Hannibal  seemed  to  revive  in  the  besieged  city. 
The  women  are  described  as  having  cut  oflf  their  hair  and 
twisted  it  into  ropes  for  the  military  engines — a  degree  of 
zeal  which  was  rewarded  with  the  postponement  of  their  over- 
throw for  several  months.  Emilianus  Scipio,  the  second 
Africanus,  served  at  that  time  in  the  Roman  army  as  a  trib- 
une ;  and  as  Masinissa  was  still  alive,  he  is  feigned  by 
Cicero  to  have  invited  the  youthful  hero  to  his  court,  when 
that  scene  is  supposed  to  have  occurred  which  is  so  beauti- 
fully unfolded  by  the  great  orator  in  his  "  Scipio's  Dream." 

At  a  somewhat  later  period,  this  rising  soldier,  appointed 
to  the  consulship  through  the  favour  of  the  people,  received 
orders  to  continue  the  siege  of  Carthage.  He  began  by 
surprising  the  lower  town,  usually  called  Magara,  and  then 
attempted  to  block  up  the  outer  port  by  means  of  a  mole  ; 
but  the  garrison  opened  another  entrance  to  the  harbour,  and 
appeared  at  sea,  to  the  great  amazement  of  the  enemy.  It 
is  asserted  that,  had  not  confusion  pervaded  the  councils  of 


38 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


the  city,  they  might  on  this  occasion  have  burnt  the  Roman 
fleet,  and  reduced  the  assailants  to  the  greatest  distress. 

Asdrubal,  who  conducted  the  defence,  at  the  head  of 
30,000  mercenaries,  was  a  man  of  a  severe  temper,  and 
treated  the  citizens  with  unnecessary  harshness.  Submit- 
ting, however,  to  an  authority  which  it  would  have  been  haz- 
ardous to  oppose,  they  continued  their  efforts  throughout  the 
winter,  and  prepared  for  the  more  formidable  attack  that 
awaited  them  in  the  spring.  The  enemy,  as  it  was  appre- 
hended, renewed  his  operations  against  the  harbour,  being 
aware  that,  as  long  as  the  Carthaginians  could  find  access  to 
the  oceati,  his  utmost  endeavours  would  be  defeated.  Having 
made  himself  master  of  the  inner  port,  he  pushed  forward 
into  the  great  square,  and  thence  to  the  citadel,  into  which  a 
large  body  of  the  troops  had  retreated.  Resistance,  though 
now  unavailing,  was  continued  seven  days,  when  terms  were 
solicited  from  the  conqueror,  who  freely  allowed  all  to  depart 
except  the  deserters  who  had  passed  from  his  standard  to 
that  of  the  enemy.  These  last,  amountmg  to  900,  shut  them- 
selves up  in  the  temple  of  Esculapius  ;  and,  choosing  to 
perish  by  their  own  hands  rather  than  submit  to  the  punish- 
ment of  traitors,  they  set  fire  to  the  buildmg,  and  died  amid 
the  flames. 

Scipio  is  reported  to  have  shed  tears  for  the  fate  of  the 
city  which  he  himself  had  destroyed,  and  upon  the  ruin  of 
which  he  knew  that  his  glory  as  a  warrior  was  to  be  founded. 
Looking  upon  a  capital,  once  so  flourishing,  sacked  and  burnt 
by  furious  soldiers,  he  reflected  on  the  revolutions  of  em- 
pires, and  recited  some  verses  from  Homer  in  allusion  to  the 
future  destinies  of  Rome,  to  which  they  were  so  easily 
adapted  : — 

"  Yet  come  it  will,  the  day  decreed  by  fates : 
(How  my  heart  trembles  while  my  tongue  relates  !) 
'Hie  day  when  thou,  imperial  Troy,  must  bend, 
And  see  thy  warriors  fall,  thy  glories  end."* 

Corinth  was  demolished  in  the  same  year  as  Carthage ; 

♦  Iliad,  lib.  vi.,  v.  447. 

Ei  jjifv  yci(t  t66i  oioa  Kara  <ppcva  Kai  Kara  Ov^tdv 

K«i  xfio^M/i)  *oi  kadi  iiniiii^ia  *fijfi»mf' 


ANCIENT  HISTORT. 


39 


«nd  we  are  told  that  a  youth  of  the  former  city  repeated  a 
similar  passage  from  the  Greek  poet  when  he  beheld  his  na- 
tive town  reduced  to  ashes — a  fine  tribute  to  the  genius  of 
the  immortal  bard,  whose  sentiments  were  thus  ingrafted 
upon  the  serious  thoughts  of  all  contemplative  spirits  through- 
out the  civilized  world. 

It  would  appear  that  the  greater  number  of  the  Carthagin- 
ians who  survived  the  fall  of  the  metropolis  repaired  to  Tunis, 
situated  at  the  distance  of  about  twelve  miles,  and  added  at 
once  to  its  population  and  its  commerce.  Some,  indeed,  are 
said  to  have  withdrawn  into  Egypt,  and  even  into  the  near- 
est of  the  Asiatic  provinces  ;  while  others,  incorporating  with 
Ihe  mixed  race  of  Liby-Phosnicians,  fell  back  into  the  coun- 
tries which  acknowledged  the  sway  of  the  Numidian  princes. 
In  this  manner  the  whole  of  maritime  Barbary,  from  Alexan- 
dria to  Algiers,  became  subject  to  the  Romans  ;  for  the  Cy- 
renaica,  as  belonging  to  the  kingdom  of  the  Ptolemies,  had 
previously  fallen  into  their  hands.  The  territory  of  Masinissa 
was  relinquished  to  his  sons,  who  ^eem  to  have  exercised 
joint  sovereignty,  under  the  protection  of  their  august  allies 
until,  upon  the  death  of  two  of  his  brothers,  the  sceptre  was 
assumed  by  Micipsa  as  his  undivided  right.  In  these  cir- 
cumstances, and  as  the  senate  abstained  from  every  attempt 
to  extend  their  conquests  in  Africa,  peace  continued  man^ 
years  uninterrupted  under  the  proconsular  government,  to 
which  the  states  of  Carthage  were  now  committed. 

The  tranquillity  of  the  province  was  first  disturbed  by  the 
ambition  of  Juguriha,  a  nephew  of  the  Numidian  king,  being 
a  natural  son  of  Manastabal,  one  of  the  children  of  the  cel- 
ebrated Masinissa.  Micipsa,  whose  accession  has  just  been 
described,  had  two  sons,  Adherbal  and  Hiempsal,  who  being 
still  very  young  when  he  felt  himself  approaching  his  end,  he 
intrusted  the  care  of  their  education  and  interests  to  their 
cousin,  now  arrived  at  maturer  years.  The  youths,  as  they 
approached  manhood,  bore  with  impatience  the  ascendency 
to  which  their  relative  had  attained,  and  did  not  take  any 
care  to  conceal  their  contempt  for  his  origin,  or  their  neg- 
lect of  his  counsels.  Yielding  to  the  strong  feeling  of  resent- 
ment which  had  been  thus  unwisely  excited.  Jngurtha  had  re- 
course to  arms  ;  and  as  he  posse.«-sed  military  talents  far 
superior  to  those  of  the  legitimate  princes,  his  success  in  the 
field  of  battle  soon  compelled  them  to  make  known  theit 


40 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


cause  at  Rome,  and  entreat  the  aid  or  interposition  of  the 
senate.* 

The  administration  of  the  two  brothers  appears  to  have 
experienced  opposition  from  other  quarters,  before  they  came 
to  blows  with  the  son  of  Manastabal.  A  sheik  or  petty  chief 
in  Numidia,  whose  name  was  Jarbas,  had  risen  in  actual  re- 
DeUion,  and  was  not  completely  subdued  until  Pompey  led 
against  him  a  detachment  of  regular  troops.  Another  pre- 
tender to  the  throne  appeared  in  the  person  of  Masintha, 
who  could  boast  of  a  royal  extraction,  and,  which  was  of  much 
more  value  in  his  circumstances,  the  powerful  patronage  of 
Julius  Caesar.  This  claimant  presented  himself  before  the 
Roman  senate,  where  he  was  met  by  Juba,  the  son  of  Hi- 
empsal,  in  whose  favour  a  decision  was  pronounced  by  the 
voice  of  the  commonwealth.  But  Jugurtha,  who  was  in 
arms  against  the  same  monarch,  was  better  acquainted  than 
Masintha  with  the  means  of  influencing  the  judgment  of  that 
supreme  council  which  now  directed  the  affairs  of  Europe, 
Asia  Minor,  and  a  large  portion  of  Africa.  He  had  discov- 
ered, that  neither  the  general  in  the  camp  nor  the  senator  in 
the  hall  of  justice  v;as  inaccessible  to  a  bribe  ;  and  as  he 
had  an  ample  treasury,  he  never  found  himself  destitute  of 
friends,  even  among  the  stern  advocates  of  republican  purity. 

0  venal  city!"  he  exclaimed,  as  he  turned  his  back  upon  the 
towers  of  Romulus,  "  O  city,  ready  for  sale  and  destruction, 
shouldst  thou  meet  a  purchaser  !"t 

Jugurtha,  pursuing  the  wily  system  which  he  had  thought 
proper  to  adopt,  found  a  complete  recompense  in  a  victory 
gained  over  a  consular  army,  whom  he  compelled  to  pass 
under  the  yoke  within  sight  of  the  ruins  of  Carthage  ;  thereby 
gratifying  the  revenge  of  his  country,  and  inflicting  upon  his 
proud  conquerors  an  indelible  disgrace.  The  defeated  gen- 
eral bound  himself  to  evacuate  Numidia,  with  his  whole 
forces,  within  ten  days.J 

*  Sallusti  Jugurtha,  cap.  xiii. 

t  "  Urbem  venalem  et  mature  perituram,  si  emptorem  inve- 
nerit !" — Sallusti  Jugurtha,  cap.  xxxv. 

X  The  vanquished  chief  was  Aulus  Albinus,  the  brother  of  the 
consul,  who  had  been  left  in  the  temporary  command  of  the 
army. — Sail.  Jugurth.,  c.  xxviii.  "  Quae,  quanquam  gravia  et 
flagitii  plena  erant ;  tamen  quia  mortis  metu  mutabant,  secuti 
Regi  libuerat,  pax  convenit." 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


41 


Rage  and  shame  filled  the  breasts  of  the  senators  when 
they  heard  of  this  miserable  catastrophe.  Metellus,  a  brave 
soldier,  who  by  his  triumphs  over  this  rebellious  prince  earned 
the  distinction  of  Numidicus,  was  sent  into  Africa  to  recover 
the  honour  of  Rome,  and  to  secure  the  sovereignty  for  the 
descendants  of  Masinissa.  Tiie  celebrated  Marius,  about 
two  years  afterward,  routed  him  completely  in  a  sanguinary 
engagement ;  and  finally,  through  the  treachery  of  Bocchus, 
the  father-in-law  of  the  usurper,  obtained  possession  of  his 
person,  and  condemned  him  to  make  part  of  the  spectacle  in 
his  triumph.  It  is  said  that  Jugurlha,  amid  the  pomp  of  his 
victor's  entry  into  the  capital,  lost  his  reason,  or  at  least  his 
presence  of  mind  ;  that  the  lictors  stripped  him  ;  took  the 
jewels  from  his  ears  ;  and  threw  him  into  a  dungeon,  where 
he  justified  to  the  last  moment  of  his  life  all  that  he  had 
averred  concerning  the  rapacity  of  the  Romans.* 

After  these  events,  the  crown  of  Numidia  was  given  to 
Juba,  the  son  of  Hiempsal  ;  the  enjoyment  of  which  was  cut 
short  by  the  troubles  which  distracted  Rome  itself,  and  put 
a  period  to  the  republican  government.  There  is,  indeed, 
much  apparent  truth  in  the  observation,  that  Carthage  was 
no  sooner  levelled  with  the  ground  than  an  avenging  deity 
seemed  to  rise  from  its  ruins.  The  Roman  manners  became 
depraved  ;  the  commonwealth  began  to  be  distracted  by  civil 
wars  ;  and  these  evils  had  their  commencement  upon  the 
African  shores.  Scipio  himself,  the  destroyer  of  that  capital, 
died  by  the  hands  of  his  relations  ;  the  children  of  Masinissa, 
who  contributed  to  the  success  of  the  invaders,  slaughtered 
one  another  in  the  very  scene  of  their  triumphs  ;  and  the 
possessions  of  Syphax  enabled  Jugurtha  to  seduce  and  van- 
quish the  countrymen  of  Regulus.  Again,  the  victory  ob- 
tained over  this  politic  usurper  occasioned  that  jealousy  be- 
tween Marius  and  Sylla  which  soon  plunged  all  Rome  into 
mourning.    Vanquished  by  his  rival,  the  former  of  these 

*  Plutarch,  in  his  Life  of  Marius,  says  that  Jugurtha,  as  he 
walked  in  the  procession,  ran  distracted.  Eutropius  (lib.  iv., 
c.  28)  remarks,  that  he  was  led  before  the  chariot  of  Marius, 
bound  with  chains,  and  accompanied  by  his  two  sons.  "  Ante 
currum,"  &c. 

"Nosse  cupis  vulgo  non  cognita  fata  Jugurthas 
T't  Plutarchus  aat,  carcere  ciausus  obit  " 
D2 


42 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


commanders  sought  an  asylum  amid  the  tombs  of  Hanno 
and  Hamilcar  ;  and  when  a  slave  of  Sextilius,  the  prefect 
of  Africa,  carried  an  order  to  the  fugitive  desiring  him  to 
quit  the  dilapidated  walls  which  served  him  for  a  retreat, 
"  Go  tell  thy  master,"  replied  the  fallen  consul,  "  that  thou 
hast  seen  Marius  seated  upon  the  ruins  of  Carthage." 

The  conflict  between  Pompey  and  Caesar  was  at  length 
extended  to  the  fields  and  deserts  of  Barbary.  Juba,  whose 
claims  had  been  opposed  in  the  senate  by  the  latter  of  these 
warriors,  took  part  with  his  antagonist,  and  joined  himself 
to  the  remains  of  the  fine  army  which  had  been  broken  at 
Pharsalia.  The  conqueror  himself  soon  afterward  appeared 
in  Africa,  where  his  talents  and  fortune  produced  their  wonted 
effects  ;  subduing  the  more  resolute  of  his  enemies,  and 
gaining  the  favour  of  those  who  were  influenced  by  personal 
motives  rather  than  by  zeal  for  the  cause  in  which  they  had 
engaged.  Scipio  Metellus,  the  father-in-law  of  Pompey,  was 
defeated  and  put  to  death.  The  Numidian  king,  in  order  to 
escape  from  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  victor,  induced  his 
own  friend.  Petreius,  to  mn  him  through  the  body.  Cato  slew 
himself  at  Utica  ;  and  Sylla,  who  was  taken  by  one  of  Caesar's 
lieutenants,  was  in  a  veiy  summary  manner  deprived  of  life. 
Bocchus  and  Bogud,  kings  of  Mauritania,  who  had  alter- 
nately fought  under  the  banners  of  the  two  great  rivals,  lost, 
in  the  end,  both  their  lives  and  their  dominions  ;  and  hence, 
at  the  period  when  Augustus  ascended  the  imperial  throne, 
the  whole  of  Barbary  belonged  to  the  Romans,  or  at  least 
acknowledged  them  as  the  supreme  rulers.* 

But  although  Northern  Africa  was  thus  reduced  into  the 
form  of  a  province,  the  new  emperor  was  too  well  acquainted 
with  the  manners  of  the  people,  and  with  the  vast  difference 
which  still  subsisted  between  their  consuetudinal  laws  and 
the  statutes  of  a  civilized  nation,  to  place  the  Numidian 
states  under  the  superintendence  of  a  Roman  deputy.  He 
therefore  resolved  to  confer  the  honour  of  sovereignty  upon 
young  Juba,  the  son  of  the  late  king,  who  being  a  mere  in- 
fant at  the  death  of  his  father,  was  educated  in  Italy,  and 
trained  in  all  the  accomplishments  which  became  his  rank. 
As  his  dispositions  were  not  inferior  to  his  genius,  which  was 
of  the  highest  order,  he  acquired  the  esteem  of  Augustus, 


♦  A.  Hirt.  Pans,  de  Bello  Africano,  cap.  73-75. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


43 


who  carried  him  as  a  companion  in  all  his  expeditions  ;  and 
at  the  end  of  the  civil  war,  when  the  family  of  Cleopatra 
were  received  under  his  protection,  he  married  his  royal 
captive  to  a  daughter  of  the  Egyptian  queen,  giving  her  as  a 
dowry  the  crowns  of  Mauritania  and  Numidia. 

This  descendant  of  Micipsa  is  represented  by  historians  as 
a  very  extraordinary  person,  and  his  works  have  been  highly 
celebrated  by  learned  men.  According  to  Pliny,  who  fre- 
quently quotes  his  writings,  he  was  a  curious  and  indefati- 
gable collector  of  valuable  records — extracting  them  from  the 
Greek,  Latin,  Punic,  and  African  chronicles,  and  connecting 
them  in  a  continuous  narrative  with  the  greatest  accuracy. 
He  was,  says  the  same  historian,  more  distinguished  for  his 
erudition  than  by  his  kingly  power.* 

This  amiable  prince  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Ptolemy, 
who  owed  his  name  to  his  mother's  family,  and  who  inherited 
the  least  auspicious  part  of  their  fortunes.  A  revolt  of  his 
subjects,  headed  by  a  brave  though  unprincipled  leader,  who 
is  known  to  history  under  the  appellation  of  Tacfarinas,  not 
only  disturbed  his  government  several  years,  but  also  em- 
ployed the  arms  of  Rome  in  a  very  doubtful  war.  Tacitus 
remarks,  that  many  generals  contented  themselves  with  tri- 
umphal honours,  without  exerting  their  strength  to  subdue 
the  enemy.  At  Rome  had  been  erected  no  fewer  than  three 
statues  crowned  with  laurel,  and  yet  Africa  was  still  ravaged 
by  the  insurgents,  who,  disgusted  with  the  conduct  of  some 
of  Ptolemy's  officers,  preferred  an  honourable  war  to  an  in- 
glorious vassalage.  Their  place  of  retreat  was  the  territory 
of  Garamantis,  whose  prince  shared  in  the  spoil,  though 
without  sending  his  troops  into  the  field.  Dolabella,  the 
proconsul,  whose  force  had  been  unduly  diminished  by  the 
recall  of  the  ninth  legion,  found  it  necessary  to  attack  his 
enemy  under  the  cloud  of  night.  Hearing  that  the  Numid- 
ians  had  taken  possession  of  a  wood  as  a  safe  place  of  en- 
campment, he  made  a  forced  march  with  his  cavalry  and 
light-armed  foot,  and  falling  upon  them  while  still  asleep, 
and  their  horses  at  pasture,  he  gained  an  easy  and  a  most 
complete  victory.  The  Romans,  irritated  by  the  fatiguing 
service  in  which  they  had  been  so  long  employed,  and  stung 
by  the  remembrance  of  several  discomfitures,  failed  not  to 


♦  Plin.,  Hist  Nat.,  lib.v.,  c.  1.  Tacit,,  Annal.,  lib.  iv.,  c  la- 


44 


ANCIENT  HISTORy. 


take  ample  revenge  on  their  unresisting  foes.  The  main 
object  of  their  desire,  however,  was  the  life  or  captivity  of 
Tacfarinas  ;  being  satisfied  that  as  long  as  he  should  sur- 
vive, the  disaffected  Africans  would  never  be  without  a  rally- 
ing point,  a  standard  to  follow,  and  a  general  to  lead.  But 
this  brave  rebel  had  determined  that  the  soldiers  of  Augustus 
should  not  exult  over  him  as  a  prisoner.  Perceiving  that  all 
his  guards  were  cut  in  pieces,  that  his  son  was  already  taken, 
and  his  adversaries  pouring  in  thickly  upon  him,  he  sprang 
undauntedly  forward  into  the  midst  of  his  assailants,  and  sold 
his  life  at  a  dear  price.* 

Ptolemy  did  not  long  enjoy  the  peace  which  was  purchased 
at  the  expense  of  so  much  blood  ;  for  being  invited  to  Rome 
by  the  Emperor  Caligula,  he-  was  baroarously  murdered  at 
the  command  of  that  tyrant,  who  either  coveted  his  riches  or 
envied  his  popularity.  He  was  the  last  king  of  Africa  for 
many  ages  ;  his  dominions  at  his  death  being  incorporated 
with  the  contiguous  provinces,  and  governed  by  a  pretor  or 
proconsul.  Mauritania,  on  this  occasion,  was  divided  into 
two  sections — a  measure  which  was  not  accomplished  with- 
out some  disturbance  and  much  bloodshed  ;  for  ^demon, 
one  of  the  freedmen  of  the  late  sovereign,  took  up  arms  to 
revenge  his  death.  This  war,  which  was  prosecuted  with 
various  success,  continued  some  years  during  the  reign  of 
Claudius,  and,  mdeed,  appears  not  to  have  reached  its  ter- 
mination till  near  the  middle  of  the  first  century  ;  various 
leaders  having  sprung  up  to  vindicate  the  independence  of 
Western  Africa,  which,  before  these  troubles,  had  not  been 
approached  by  a  Roman  army.f 

Having  brought  down  the  narrative  of  events,  so  far  as 
they  can  be  ascertained  from  authentic  history,  to  the  mem- 
orable epoch  when  the  Roman  empire  gave  laws  to  the  greater 
part  of  the  civilized  world,  and  changed  the  form  of  supreme 
power  in  most  of  the  ancient  nations  whose  shores  were 
washed  by  the  Mediterranean,  it  may  be  convenient  to  pause 
until  we  shall  have  given  a  short  sketch  of  the  constitution 
and  commerce  of  the  Barbary  States  at  the  remote  era  to 
which  our  "attention  is  now  directed. 

*  Annal.,  lib.  iv.,  c.  15. 

t  Dion  Cassius,  lib.  59.  Seneca,  de  tranquiL  Vitae.  Plin., 
liU  v.,  c.  1,  2.    Sueton  in  vita  Colig.,  sect  26. 


CONSTITUTION,  COMMERCE,  ETQ  45 


CHAPTER  II. 

Constitution,  Commerce,  and  Navigation  of  the  Phcznician 
Colonies  on  the  Coast  of  Barhary. 

Independence  of  the  federated  Towns,  Utica,  Leptis,  &c. — 
Predominance  of  Carthage — Constancy  of  her  Government — 
Its  Progress  described — Originally  a  Monarchy,  but  gradually 
became  aristocratical— House  of  Mago — Rights  of  the  People 
exercised  in  public  Assemblies — And  in  the  Election  of  Magis- 
trates— Decided  in  all  questions  in  which  the  Kings  and  Sen- 
ate could  not  agree — Constitution  and  Power  of  the  Senate — 
The  Select  Council— The  Kmgs  or  Suffetes — Distinction  be- 
tween the  King  and  a  General — Some  resemblance  to  Roman 
Consuls  and  Hebrew  Judges — Wise  Administration  of  Justice 
— No  judicial  Assemblies  of  the  People — Basis  of  Power  oc- 
cupied by  the  Senate — Trade  and  Commerce  of  Carthage — 
Inherited  from  the  Phoenicians — Her  Position  favourable- 
Engrossed  the  Trade  of  Africa  and  Southern  Europe — Op- 
posed by  the  Greeks  at  Marseilles — Her  intercourse  with 
Sicily,  Sardinia,  Malta,  and  the  Balearic  Isles — The  Mines 
of  Spain  atiract  her  Notice — Carthaginian  Dealers  penetrate 
into  Gaul — Colonies  in  the  Atlantic — The  western  Coasts  of 
Spain — Voyages  to  Britain  and  the  Tin  Islands — Poem  of 
Festus  Avienus — Trade  in  Amber — Question  whether  the 
Carthaginians  ever  entered  the  Baltic — Voyage  of  Hanno 
towards  the  South — Colonies  planted  on  the  western  Coast 
of  Africa — The  Towns  built  in  that  Quarter — The  Carthagin- 
ians discovered  Madeira — The  Date  at  which  the  Expedi- 
tions of  Hanno  and  Hamilco  took  place — Proofs  that  Carthage 
must  have  attained  great  Power  and  Civilization — Her  Libra- 
ries— Agriculture — Splendid  Villas — Rich  Meadows  and  Gar- 
dens— Her  extensive  Land  trade  across  the  Desert — Her  war- 
like Propensities — Causes  of  her  Dechne  and  Fall. 

Of  the  trading  towns  or  smaller  states  which  owned  a 
subordmation  to  Carthage,  some  were  colonies  which  had 
sprung  immediately  from  herself,  and  others  were  settle- 
ments founded  by  their  common  parent,  the  wealthy  city  of 
Tyre.  Sallust,  who  had  good  means  of  information  on  this 
subject,  informs  his  readers,  that  not  only  Utica  and  Leptis, 
but  also  Adrumetum,  Hippo,  and  other  large  towns  on  the 


46  CONSTITUTION,  COMMERCE,  ETC. 


coast,  were  of  Phoenician  origin.*  These  esiaDlishments  are 
also  understood  to  have  been  free  and  independent  from  the 
beginning  ;  every  one,  with  a  moderate  territory  annexed  to 
it,  forming  a  little  republic.  Hence,  the  Carthaginians, 
even  when  they  had  attained  their  greatest  degree  of  power, 
did  not  exercise  an  absolute  government  over  these  colonial 
sovereignties  ;  but  rather,  on  all  proper  occasions,  were  ready 
to  acknowledge  their  constitutional  freedom,  and  likewise 
their  right  of  entering  into  separate  alliances  with  foreign 
nations.  This  opinion  is  supported  by  the  remarkable  fact, 
mentioned  by  Polybius,  that,  in  a  commercial  treaty  between 
them  and  the  Romans,  made  in  the  year  343  before  Christ, 
it  is  said,  "  upon  these  conditions  shall  be  peace  between 
Rome  and  hot  allies,  and  between  Carthage,  Utica,  and  their 
allies."  Here,  it  is  obvious,  Utica  is  recognised  as  on  a 
footing  of  equality  with  the  larger  state,  and  as  having  the 
privilege  of  contracting,  in  regard  to  trade,  a  friendly  inter- 
course with  the  Roman  commonwealth,  then  fast  approach- 
ing to  her  political  supremacy. 

It  cannot  be  concealed,  at  the  same  time,  that  the  greater 
riches  and  population  of  the  colony  founded  by  Dido,  secured 
for  it  a  predominating  influence  over  the  others,  which  ap- 
pear to  have  conceded,  without  reluctance,  that  pre-eminence 
in  public  affairs  which  belonged  to  the  mother-cities  of 
Greece.  Aristotle,  who  was  well  acquainted  with  the  dif- 
ferent constitutions  which  prevailed  in  his  age,  mentions,  as 
a  peculiar  circumstance  in  the  Carthaginian  government, 
that,  down  to  his  own  days,  it  had  undergone  no  very  great 
change,  either  from  the  impatierice  of  its  citizens  or  the 
usurpation  of  tyrants — a  proof  that  its  principles  were  at 
once  well  balanced  and  judiciously  administered.  In  com- 
mon with  Athens,  Rome,  Sparta,  and  the  other  celebrated 
democracies  of  ancient  times,  this  PhcEnician  community,  as 
we  have  just  observed,  presented  the  general  character  of 
having  a  single  city  for  its  head  ;  and  hence,  however  great 
the  dominions  of  the  metropolis  might  become,  the  govern- 

*  Sallust.  Jugurth.,  c.  19.— "Postea  Phoenices,  alii  multita- 
dinis  domi  minuendae  gratia,  pars  imperii  cupidine,  solicitat^ 
plebe  et  aliis  novarum  rerum  avidis,  Hipponem,  Hadrumetum, 
Leptim  aliasque  urbes  in  ora  marituua  condidere." — Polyb.,  lib. 
i.,  c.  1.   Heeren  vol.  i.,  p.  43. 


OT  THE  ANCIENT  BARBARY  STATES.  47 


ment  must  still  have  remained  municipal.  It  is  nevertheless 
true,  that  the  constitution  of  Carthage  was  not  constructed 
upon  any  particular  model,  but  arose,  like  the  frame  of  so- 
ciety everywhere  else,  out  of  the  circumstances  in  which 
she  found  herself  placed.  Originating  in  a  monarchy,  or  rath- 
er, perhaps,  in  that  patriarchal  rule  of  which  the  eastern 
nations  everywhere  exhibit  the  pattern,  it  soon  passed  into 
a  republic,  where  certain  powers  were  extended  to  all  orders 
of  the  state.  Without  trusting  implicitly  to  the  historical 
authorities  usually  quoted  in  support  of  these  views,  we 
might  indeed  presume,  that  this  people,  after  the  manner  of 
all  ancient  colonies,  adopted  the  political  usages  of  their  an- 
cestors at  Tyre,  so  far  as  these  could  be  rendered  applicable 
to  the  condition  of  things  in  which  their  civic  authorities 
were  Ijrst  called  to  act.* 

But  although  the  Carthtiginians  are  said  to  have  preferred 
a  cofnmonvveaUh  to  the  more  despotic  form  wliich  they  had 
brought  from  Asia,  it  is  generally  understood  that  the  actual 
administration  of  affairs  was  lodged  in  the  hands  of  a  few 
powerful  families  who  constituted  the  aristocracy  of  wealth. 
As  the  magisterial  office  conferred  honour,  and  even  a  cer- 
tain rank,  without  any  revenue,  it  must  necessarily  have  been 
bestowed  on  persons  distinguished  by  some  measure  of  opu- 
lence ;  whence,  we  cannot  be  surprised  to  learn  that,  though 
there  was  no  hereditary  claim,  riches  supplied  a  qualification 
which,  in  most  cases,  was  held  equally  valid.  Aristotle  has 
accordingly  remarked,  that  the  governors  of  the  city  were 
chosen  on  account  of  their  property,  their  worth,  and  their 
popular  virtues.  In  ordinary  times,  such  considerations 
would  doubtless  have  their  full  weight  ;  but  it  is  manifest, 
that  in  a  nation  devoted  to  conquest,  another  and  a  more 
prevailing  source  of  influence  would  soon  be  opened  up,  in 
the  superior  military  talents  of  an  individual  or  a  family. 
The  Greek  and  Roman  writers,  owing  to  the  scanty  remains 
of  Carthaginian  history  ^hich  fell  into  their  hands,  could  not 
determine  with  precision  the  rise  of  those  great  names  which 
figure  in  the  more  important  transactions  of  the  republic,  her 
wars  and  treaties,  and  occasionally  created  so  much  jealousy 
in  the  minds  of  the  people.  But  the  house  of  Mago,  the  tirst 
conquerors  of  Sicily,  aftbrds  a  striking  instance  of  the  ascend* 


AxisU  PoUtic,  lib.  v.,  c.  12, 


48  CONSTITUTION,  COMMERCE,  ETC. 


ency  now  alluded  to  ;  having,  during  the  lapse  of  four  gen- 
erations, supplied  commanders  to  their  countrymen.* 

It  is  manifest,  therefore,  that  the  royal  functions  being 
superseded,  the  government  of  the  ancient  Barbary  States, 
three  or  four  centuries  before  the  Christian  era,  had  become 
a  mixture  of  aristocracy  with  an  infusion  of  democratical  ele- 
ments. We  find,  accordingly,  that  Polybius  and  Aristotle, 
the  most  competent  authorities  on  this  subject,  place  the 
constitution  of  Carthage  among  those  mixed  forms  where 
power  is  divided  between  the  people,  properly  so  called,  and 
the  patrician  order,  which  has  gradually  risen  from  them. 
The  one  compares  it  to  the  administration  of  Sparta,  before 
anarchy  or  despotism  had  paralyzed  its  rulers  ;  and  the  other 
likens  it  to  that  of  Rome,  when,  as  yet,  no  demagogue  had 
insulted  the  majesty  of  the  senate.! 

The  rights  enjoyed  by  the  people  appear  to  have  been 
chiefly  displayed  in  their  public  assemblies ;  but  as  to  the 
precise  extent  of  their  privileges,  and  the  manner  in  which 
they  were  exercised,  history  does  not  convey  any  satisfactory 
information.  It  is  generally  admitted,  however,  that  the 
popular  part  of  the  government  was  invested  with  a  certain 
influence  in  the  election  of  the  chief  magistrates  or  kings — 
a  right  which,  while  it  imposed  on  the  leading  families  a 
feeling  of  dependance,  raised  the  great  body  of  the  commons 
to  a  suitable  degree  of  political  elevation.  But  we  learn 
from  Aristotle,  that  the  distinction  now  mentioned  was  often 
prostituted  to  the  lowest  purposes  ;  that  the  electors,  in 
most  cases,  were  actuated  by  considerations  of  gain  r^^^^her 
than  of  national  honour  or  advantage  ;  and  that,  in  his  time, 
the  highest  offices  in  Carthage  were  obtained  by  bribery. 
We  are  informed  by  the  same  author,  that  there  was  placed 
in  the  hands  of  the  people  the  prerogative  of  deciding  in  all 
questions  concerning  which  the  king  and  the  senate  could 
not  agree  ;  and  on  this  principle  it  was  not  uncommon  to  find 
them  deliberating  on  matters  of  the  deepest  importance,  such 
as  declarations  of  war  and  treaties  of  peace. 

The  senate,  it  is  however  acknowledged,  possessed  a  para- 
mount authority  in  all  state  affairs  ;  and,  in  fact,  previous  to 
the  wars  with  Rome,  exercised  nearly  the  whole  power  of 

*  Arist.  Polit.,  lib.  v.,  c. 

t  Aristotlei  as  just  quoted.  Polyb.,  lib.  vi,,  c  2. 


OF  THE  ANCIENT  BARBARY  STATES.  49 


the  commonwealth.  But  it  is  not  certainly  known  whether 
that  assembly  was  permanent,  or  consisted  of  a  body  of  citi- 
zens which  was  from  time  to  time  renewed,  nor  even  what 
was  the  exact  number  of  its  constituent  members.  The  as- 
cendency which  it  had  acquired  strengthens  the  probability 
that  it  was  not  entirely  dependant  on  the  suffrages  of  the 
people  ;  and  there  is  equal  reason  to  conclude  that,  like  the 
Roman  senate,  it  amounted  to  several  hundreds,  whose  rank 
or  services  entitled  them  to  a  voice  in  its  decisions.  This 
inference  derives  confirmation  from  the  fact,  that  out  of  it 
was  chosen  a  more  Select  Council,  which,  it  is  said,  was 
held  in  the  greatest  reverence,  and  enjoyed  an  unquestiona- 
ble control  over  the  senate  itself.  In  respect  to  the  origin 
of  this  supreme  committee,  Justin  gives  the  following  ac- 
count : — "  As  the  house  of  Mago  became  dangerous  to  a  free 
state,  100  judges  were  chosen  from  among  the  senators,  who, 
upon  the  return  of  generals  from  war,  should  demand  an  ac- 
count of  the  things  transacted  by  them,  that  they,  being 
thereby  kept  in  awe,  should  so  conduct  themselves  in  their 
military  commands  as  to  have  regard  to  the  laws  of  their 
country."  As  this  tribunal  consisted  of  a  number  so  con- 
siderable, it  may  be  concluded  that  the  assembly  from  which 
it  was  drawn  comprehended  no  small  proportion  of  the  older 
and  more  wealthy  families.* 

This  council,  clothed  with  powers  at  once  very  extensive 
and  arbitrary,  became,  in  the  end,  dangerous  to  that  liberty 
which  it  was  its  peculiar  duty  to  protect.  It  is  manifest, 
however,  that  during  the  flourishing  period  of  the  republic,  it 
answered  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  designed  ;  checking 
at  once  the  power  of  triumphant  commanders  and  the  inso- 
lence of  aspiring  demagogues.  At  a  later  period,  as  has  now 
been  suggested,  it  degenerated  into  the  most  intolerable  des- 
potism ;  many  officers  being  known  to  commit  suicide  rather 
than  incur  the  hazard  of  its  tyrannical  rigour. 

On  the  whole,  it  is  the  opinion  of  Heeren,  that  the  •duties 
of  the  Carthaginian  senate,  including  both  the  larger  and  the 
smaller  body,  were  of  the  same  nature  and  extent  as  those 
of  the  Roman.  There  is  no  doubt  that  all  business  relating 
to  foreign  affairs  was  under  their  management ;  the  official 
reports  being  laid  before  them  by  the  kings  or  suffetes,  who 


*  Justin.,  lib.  xviii.,  c.  3-7;  lib.  xi?.,  c.  1,  2. 
E 


50  CONSTITUTION,  COMMERCE,  ETC. 


presided  at  their  meetings.  They  likewise  received  foreign 
ambassadors  ;  deliberated  on  all  national  concerns  ;  and  de- 
cided upon  the  expediency  of  peace  and  war,  although,  as  a 
matter  of  forro^  the  question  was  sometimes  submitted  to  the 
people.  The  power  of  the  senate,  therefore,  seems  to  have 
been  unlimited,  so  long  as  its  determinations  agreed  with 
those  of  the  nominal  sovereigns ;  and,  consequently,  its 
members  held  in  their  hands  the  greater  part  of  the  legisla- 
tive authority.  To  their  care,  a.ho,  were  confided  the  wel- 
fare and  security  of  the  city,  as  well  a^s  thp  direction  of  the 
public  revenue.* 

Bui  the  highest  office  in  the  Carthaginiah  commonwealth 
was  that  of  the  kings,  as  they  are  usually  denominated  by 
the  Greek  writers.  These  were  a  class  of  rulerb  who,  in 
their  rank  and  duties,  corresponded  to  the  Consuls  of  Rome 
and  to  the  Judges  of  the  Hebrew  tribes  prior  to  the  age  of , 
Samuel.  All  which  is  positively  known  respecting  them  is, 
that  they  were  elected  from  the  principal  famiUes  of  the 
state ;  that  they  presided  in  the  senate  ;  and  that,  in  some 
other  respects,  they  possessed  a  high  degree  of  authority. 
It  remains  doubtful,  however,  whether  there  were  two  in 
office  at  the  same  time,  or  only  one  ;  and  an  equal  uncer- 
tainty exists  as  to  the  duration  of  their  appointment.  The 
prevailing  opinion  among  the  best-informed  authors  of  the 
present  day  is,  that  they  continued  in  power  during  their 
whole  lives. 

It  would  appear  that  a  distinction  was  uniformly  preserved 
at  Carthage  between  the  duties  of  the  king  or  judge,  and 
those  of  the  general  who  led  the  national  troops  into  the  field 
of  battle  ;  though,  on  certain  occasions,  it  should  seem,  the 
union  of  the  civil  and  military  jurisdiction  was  not  deemed 
incompatible.  It  was  held  sufficient,  as  a  security  for  public 
freedom,  that  the  rank  of  sovereign  did  not  imply  the  more 
dangerous  authority  of  chief  comjuander ;  that  the  latter 
could  not  be  held  by  the  suffetes  without  a  special  nomina- 
tion by  the  senate,  confirmed  in  the  assembly  of  the  people  ; 
and  that  at  the  close  of  the  campaign  his  powers  expired, 
and  could  not  be  revived  without  the  regular  forms  of  a  new 
appointment. 

In  the  administration  of  justice  the-  Carthaginians  seem  to- 


HisUwical  Researchee,  vol.  i.,  chap.  3. 


OF  THE  ANCIENT  BARBARY  STATES. 


51 


have  acted  more  wisely  than  the  Greeks,  and  to  have  em- 
ployed regular  magistrates  for  the  decision  of  all  lawsuits. 
The  people,  accordingly,  never  assembled  in  a  body  to  exer- 
cise the  judicial  functions,  as  they  were  wont  at  Rome  and 
Athens,  where  so  much  injustice  was  perpetrated  on  public 
characters.  This  arrangement  must  have  prevented  many 
evils,  as  popular  tribunals  are  well  known  to  have  formed 
one  of  the  most  dangerous  institutions  possessed  by  the  free 
states  of  antiquity  ;  and  it  appears  also  to  have  been  founded 
on  an  aristocratical  principle  quite  opposed  to  the  irresponsi- 
ble judgment  of  the  multitude.  In  these  respects  the  usages 
of  Carthage  bore  a  close  resemblance  to  those  of  Lacedaemon, 
though  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  the  information  con- 
veyed by  Aristotle  is  so  limited  as  not  to  afford  materials  for 
any  certain  or  general  conclusion. 

The  account  now  given,  imperfect  as  it  is,  may  neverthe- 
less be  sufficient  to  show  the  general  character  of  the  an- 
cient constitutions  which  distinguished  the  Barbary  States. 
In  a  commercial  community,  depending  on  a  single  town, 
little  else  could  be  expected  than  that  the  more  opulent 
families  would  seize  the  government,  and  form  an  aristocracy 
of  which  the  main  power  rested  in  the  senate  ;  the  members 
of  Avhich,  too,  would  derive  their  chief  dignity  from  the 
splendour  of  'their  wealth  and  conquests,  and  draw  their 
strength  from  the  mutual  jealousy  of  the  popular  factions,  and 
even  from  the  religion  of  the  people.  On  this  foundation 
their  polity  remained  firm  and  unshaken  during  several  centu- 
ries ;  nor  was  it  until  after  the  first  peace  with  Rome  that 
new  circumstances  arose,  which  dissevered  the  bands  whereby 
the  government  of  Carthage  had  been  so  long  held  together. 

Proceeding  now  to  make  a  few  remarks  on  the  commer- 
cial relations  of  this  famous  republic,  we  may  observe,  that 
trade  and  navigation  are  in  all  cases  so  intimately  connected 
as  to  render  it  very  difficult  to  consider  them  apart.  As  the 
daughter  of  Tyre,  this  great  city  was  naturally  led  to  lay  the 
foundations  of  her  power  on  her  traffic  with  other  countries. 
No  nation  in  the  ancient  world  is  more  celebrated  than  the 
Phoenicians  as  skilful  craftsmen  and  adventurous  sailors ; 
carrying  their  manufactures,  together  with  the  commodities 
which  they  imported  from  the  remote  regions  of  the  East  and 
the  South,  to  the  provinces  spread  along  the  Black  Sea  and 
the  borders  of  the  Atlantic.    Corn  and  honey,  oil  and  balm. 


52  CONSTITUTION,  COMMERCE,  ETC. 


were  brought  from  Judah  and  Israel ;  from  Damascus  came 
the  wine  of  Helbon  and  the  fine  wool  for  which  that  part  of 
Syria  was  long  famous  ;  the  cypresses  of  Mount  Hermon,  the 
oaks  of  Bashan,  the  cedars  of  Lebanon,  and  the  box-wood 
of  Cyprus,  were  conveyed  to  Tyre,  in  exchange  for  the  pro- 
ductions of  her  n^echanical  ingenuity.  In  Tarshish,  or  Spain, 
the  Tyrians  obtained  silver,  iron,  tin,  and  lead ;  from  the 
Isles  of  Elisha,  or  the  shores  of  Asia  Minor,  was  imported, 
according  to  the  prophet,  a  species  of  blue  and  purple  sail- 
cloth, which  proved  extremely  useful  to  their  merchant-ships. 
From  Egypt  were  conveyed  cotton  and  linen  goods,  and 
perhaps  those  rarer  articles  of  traffic,  which  were  carried  on 
the  backs  of  camels  from  the  interior  of  Africa.  The  eastern 
shores  of  Arabia  supplied  wrought  iron,  spices,  ivory,  ebony, 
gold,  and  precious  stones, — all  which  were  brought  over  land 
to  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  exchanged  for  Phoeni- 
cian manufactures  or  Spanish  silver. 

Carthage  succeeded  to  a  large  portion  of  the  trade  origi- 
nally possessed  by  the  enterprising  state  from  which  she  de- 
rived her  origin.  In  some  respects  her  position  was  more 
favourable  for  commerce  with  Africa  and  Western  Europe, 
than  even  that  of  Tyre  and  Sidon  ;  and  there  is  no  doubt 
that  she  availed  herself  of  her  advantages,  in  securing  the 
riches  of  the  Spanish  peninsula,  as  well  as  those  of  the  negro 
kingdoms  situated  beyond  the  Sahara.  By  means  of  cara- 
vans, her  goods  sought  a  market  on  the  banks  of  the  Upper 
Nile,  and  on  either  side  of  the  Arabian  Gulf ;  and  in  the 
Mediterranean  her  ships  found  an  entrance  into  all  the 
principal  ports,  from  Cyrene  to  the  Straits.  With  a  view 
pf  extending  her  commerce  and  creating  a  demand  for  her 
manufactures,  she  formed  settlements  in  Sicily,  Sardinia, 
Corsica,  and  the  Balearic  Islands.  This  step  became  the 
more  necessary  to  her,  because,  though  she  kept  up  a  corre- 
spondence with  the  parent-country,  as  also  with  Greece, 
Egypt,  and  the  Pentapolis,  she  appears  not  to  have  at  any 
time  enjoyed  a  large  share  of  trade  in  those  parts.  Among 
these  ancient  nations,  where  competition  already  prevailed  to 
no  small  extent,  she  could  not  fail  to  encounter  many  rivals  ; 
on  which  account,  her  rulers  wisely  endeavoured  to  secure  an 
exclusive  intercourse  with  the  less  polished  tribes  who  occu- 
pied the  western  shores  of  their  inland  sea.  Even  this  ob- 
ject was  not  accomplished  without  opposition ;  for  a  Greek 


OF  THE  ANCIENT  BARBARY  STATES. 


53 


colony,  planted  at  Marseilles,  claimed  the  trade  of  Southern 
Gaul,  while  other  establishments,  not  less  jealous,  asserted 
a  previous  right  to  whatever  profit  might  be  derived  from 
buying  and  selling  among  the  Italians  and  merchants  of 
Sicily. 

It  was,  however,  to  the  countries  just  named,  that  her 
mercantile  navigation  was  first  directed.  Carthaginian  tra- 
ders settled  at  an  early  period  in  Syracuse,  as  well  as  in  other 
Greek  cities,  whose  harbours  were  always  full  of  their  ships  ; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  these  rich  countries  found  the  Tyrian 
colonists  the  best  customers  for  their  oil  and  wine,  which 
they  again  disposed  of  at  Cyrene,  in  exchange  for  commodi- 
ties still  more  highly  prized.  That  an  active  commerce  ex- 
isted between  Carthage  and  the  other  nations  of  Italy — the 
Romans  and  Etrurians — is  rendered  manifest  by  the  numer- 
ous treaties,  of  v/hich  some  record  still  remains.  The  greater 
part  of  these,  we  are  told,  related  to  the  suppression  of  piracy, 
at  that  time  carried  on  by  all  maritime  nations,  especially  by 
those  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Mediterranean — a  practice 
which  extended,  not  only  to  the  plunder  of  towns,  but  also 
to  the  abduction  of  the  inhabitants,  who  were  instantly  sold 
into  captivity.  The  articles  presented  in  the  Italian  markets 
by  the  States  of  Barbary,  were  black  slaves  from  the  interior, 
precious  stones,  gold,  and  manufactures  ;  and,  in  return  for 
these,  they  accepted,  as  has  just  been  remarked,  the  produce 
of  the  soil — corn,  wine,  and  oil,  together  with  certain  speci- 
mens of  art,  in  which  the  natives  were  already  beginning  to 
excel.  Malta,  which  belonged  to  Carthage,  soon  became 
celebrated  for  the  beautiful  cloths  it  produced  ;  Lipara  and 
its  dependances,  which  owned  the  same  government,  supplied 
an  abundance  of  resin,  then  esteemed  a  very  valuable  article  ; 
Corsica  was  celebrated  for  its  wax  and  slaves  ;  and  Elba 
enjoyed  a  high  reputation,  arising  from  its  inexhaustible  stores 
of  iron,  which  were  imagined  to  grow  under  the  hand  of  the 
miner. 

It  has  already  been  suggested  that  the  Barbary  States 
maintained  an  early  and  very  extensive  intercourse  with 
Spain.  That  country,  so  rich  in  natural  productions,  pre- 
sented one  of  the  most  profitable  marts  for  the  Carthaginian 
trade  ;  while  its  mines  formed  one  of  the  principal  sources 
of  their  revenue.  At  the  period  when  they  were  first  visited 
by  the  ships  of  the  new  republic,  the  inhabitants  had  attained 


54  CONSTITUTION,  COMMERCE,  ETC. 


just  that  degree  of  civilization  which  made  them  acquainted 
with  foreign  commodities,  and  led  them  to  covet  their  pos- 
session, without  having  inspired  them  wiih  the  knowledge  of 
producing  any  work  of  art  which  might  be  given  in  exchange. 
Hence  the  traffic  with  them  must  have  been  extremely  advan- 
tageous to  the  older  nation,  who  could,  in  the  ab-sence  of  all 
competition,  charge  for  their  goods  an  arbitrary  price.  Pene- 
trating through  the  peninsula,  the  chapmen  of  Carthage  car- 
ried their  wares  into  France — not  having  yet  established  a 
footing  on  its  southern  shores,  which,  as  is  mentioned  above, 
were  jealously  occupied  by  the  Greeks  of  Massilia,  a  people 
not  less  devoted  than  themselves  to  the  pursuits  of  com- 
merce. This  early  intercourse  with  Gaul  is  proved  by  the 
great  number  of  mercenary  troops  from  that  country,  which, 
during  the  first  of  the  Sicilian  wars,  fought  in  the  Cartha- 
ginian armies,  as  well  as  by  the  eager  desire  which  was  man- 
ifested to  expel  the  settlers,  who  had  anticipated  them  in 
colonizing  its  richest  provinces.* 

As  to  the  trade  which  the  African  merchants  extended  into 
the  Atlantic,  it  is  difficult  to  make  a  distinction  between  what 
they  accomplished  as  original  adventurers  and  what  they 
inherited  from  their  Phoenician  progenitors.  It  is  manifest 
that  the  ships  of  Tyre  had  already  opened  the  way  for  them 
beyond  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  ;  and  it  admits  not  of  any 
doubt  that  they  continued  to  follow  the  track  thus  indicated 
to  their  commercial  navy.  The  best  writers  on  this  subject 
are  unanimous  in  the  opinion,  that  the  Carthaginians  had  a 
number  of  colonies  on  the  western  coast  of  Spain,  as  also 
that  the  articles  which  principally  composed  their  cargoes 
were  tin  and  amber.  According  to  the  express  evidence  of 
antiquity,  the  metal  now  mentioned  was  found,  not  only  in  the 
mountains  of  Biscay,  but  also  in  Britain,  and  in  certain  islands 
which  lay  not  far  from  its  shores.! 

With  respect  to  the  course  of  this  trade,  we  are  informed 
by  Strabo,  that  in  early  times  it  was  conducted  by  the  Phoe- 
nicians, or  Carthaginians  who  had  their  principal  seat  at  Ga- 
des.  It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  this  people  at  first  coiv 
tented  themselves  with  the  office  of  carriers  ;  though,  from 
the  extent  of  their  navigation,  it  might  be  concluded  that  they 


*  Diodor.  Sicul.,  lib.  v.,  c.  21.  Scylax,  p.  50,  quoted  by  Hee- 
ren.  t  Diodor.  Sicul.,  lib.  v.,  c.  19-22. 


OF  THE  AjyClENT  BARBARY  STATES.  55 


frequently  approached  the  British  shores,  and  transacted  busi- 
ness with  the  natives.  Some  light  is  thrown  on  this  inquir}', 
by  a  passage  in  the  poem  of  Festus  Avienus,  who  has  clothed 
in  verse  the  more  remarkable  incidents  which  distinguished 
the  voyage  of  Hamilco.  He  relates  that  the  CEstrymnian 
Islands — supposed  to  be  those  now  named  the  Scilly — 
abound  in  tm  and  lead.  Their  numerous  inhabitants,  says 
he,  are  proud  and  ingenious,  and  devote  themselves  entirely 
to  commerce,  gliding  over  the  sea  in  their  frail  canoes,  formed, 
not  of  wood,  but  of  hides.    Two  days'  sail  from  them  is  the 

Sacred  Island,"  inhabited  by  the  Hibernians ;  but  the 
island  of  the  Albiones  is  close  at  hand.  The  Tartessians 
were  the  first  traders  to  the  CEstrymnian  Islands,  though 
the  colonies  and  the  people  of  Cafthage  about  the  Pillars  of 
Hercules  navigate  these  seas.  The  voyage,  aa  Hamilco 
affirms,  occupies  four  months,  as  he  himself  experienced.* 

This  quotation  proves  that  it  was  chiefly  the  Tartessians — ■ 
in  other  words,  the  Phoenician  colonists  in  Spain — who  per- 
formed the  voyages  to  which  Avienus  alludes.  Carthage, 
however,  and  her  settlements,  also  took  an  active  part ;  and 
Hamilco  himself  had  extended  his  course,  whether  for  trade 
or  discovery,  to  the  same  point.  The  long  period  exhausted 
in  a  voyage,  comparatively  so  short,  is  accounted  for  in  his 
own  narrative,  in  which  he  states  that  he  proceeded  along 
the  coast,  where  his  progress  was  impeded  by  many  obstruc- 
tions. Among  these  he  mentions  a  vast  accumulation  of 
seaweed,  which,  together  with  other  impediments  not  more 
intelligible  to  a  modern  sailor,  prevented  him  from  stretching 
out  into  the  open  main.  The  Scilly  Isles  were  unquestiona- 
bly the  object  that  he  had  principally  in  view,  though  the  in- 
tercourse which  the  Carthaginians  maintained  with  these  minor 
settlements,  comprehended  also  some  acquaintance  with  Hi- 
bernia  and  the  neigiibouring  shores  of  Albion,  both  of  which, 
it  is  more  than  probable,  were  visited  by  the  Eastern  naviga- 
tors. In  fact,  from  what  Strabo  says,  it  may  be  inferred  that 
an  active  commerce  existed  on  the  English  coast,  as  he 
observes  that  the  manners  of  the  native  tribes  were  rendered 
milder  by  their  frequent  intercourse  with  strangers.  It 
might  even  be  conjectured,  from  his  remarks,  that  the  mer- 
chants of  Carthage  had  regular  stations  in  Britain,  without 

*  Festus  Avienus,  Ora  Maritima,  v.  95-125. 


66  CONSTITUTION,  COMMERCE,  ETC. 


which  a  long  stay  among  the  inhabitants,  such  at  least  as  to 
affect  their  habits,  would  not  have  been  practicable. 

The  trade  here,  as  well  as  in  the  Scilly  Isles,  appears  to 
have  resolved  itself,  as  was  usual  in  those  ancient  times,  into 
a  species  of  barter.  Earthenware,  salt,  and  iron  tools,  were 
commodities  with  which  the  foreigners  supplied  them.  But 
on  this  subject  we  labour  under  a  want  of  details  ;  for,  till  the 
time  of  the  Romans,  the  particulars  of  the  traffic  which  the 
Carthaginians  carried  on  with  their  customers  beyond  the 
Straits  were  enveloped  in  the  profound  est  secrecy.  This 
precaution,  however,  did  not  keep  away  all  competitors.  The 
way  which  the  Phoenicians  found  out  by  sea,  the  Greeks  of 
Massiha  found  out  by  land  ;  for,  journeying  along  the  shore 
as  far  as  the  British  Channel,  whence  they  procured  quanti- 
ties of  tin,  at  that  time  an  object  of  great  request,  they  con- 
veyed it,  after  thirty  days'  travel,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone. 

The  descriptions  of  the  ancients,  in  respect  to  the  dealings 
of  the  Phoenician  colonists,  both  in  Spain  and  Africa,  with 
the  natives  of  the  tin  countries,  are  at  once  so  minute  and 
distinct,  that  there  is  no  room  whatever  for  doubt  as  to  the 
great  extent  of  their  trade  and  navigation  several  centuries 
before  the  Christian  era.  The  case,  however,  as  Heeren 
justly  observes,  is  widely  different  with  regard  to  the  other 
articles  which  induced  them  to  brave  the  terrors  of-the  At- 
lantic, namely,  the  production  which  by  them  was  denomi- 
nated "  electrum,"  and  is  familiarly  known  to  us  by  the  des- 
ignation of  amber.  Every  circumstance  connected  with  the 
obtainment  of  this  commodity  has  been  so  darkened  by  fable, 
that  the  narratives  of  the  best  authors  are  rendered  quite 
unintelligible — a  fact  which  proves  that  the  country  whence 
it  was  procured  was  much  more  distant  than  the  lands  which 
abounded  in  tin.  This  obscurity,  too,  which  every  reader 
has  cause  to  lament,  has  been  not  a  little  increased  by  the 
attempts  of  certain  moderns  to  confine  the  trade  in  amber  to 
one  place  ;  while,  from  the  accounts  given  by  Pliny,  it  is  clear 
that  it  was  to  be  found  in  several  districts  and  islands  in  the 
north  of  Europe.  The  whole  of  Scandinavia  was  celebrated 
for  this  valuable  commodity  ;  and,  assuredly,  there  is  no  good 
reason  for  supposing,  that  the  daring  nation  which  doubled 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  sailed  from  Tyre  to  Britain, 
might  not  also  have  reached  the  Samlandic  coast.* 

*  See  Heeren's  Historical  Resoarchee,  vol.  i..  d.  173. 


OF  THE  ANCIENT  BARBARY  STATES.  57 


But  the  absence  of  facts  forbids  any  confident  conclusion 
relative  to  this  particular  branch  of  that  very  extensive  com- 
merce in  which  the  ancient  States  of  Barbary,  under  the  au- 
spices of  their  Tyrian  colonists,  are  known  to  have  engaged ; 
and  he  who  endeavours  to  elicit  historical  truth  from  the 
maze  of  fabulous  geography  with  which  alone  we  are  sup- 
plied, pursues  a  phantom  which  will  for  ever  elude  his  most 
eager  grasp.* 

It  is  generally  admitted,  that  the  CEstrymnian  or  Cassi- 
terides,  that  is,  the  Tin  Islands  of  the  ancients,  may  be  iden- 
tified with  those  of  Scilly.  It  is  remarkable,  however,  that  in 
these  last  there  are  no  traces  of  tin  at  the  present  day,  and 
no  vestiges  that  it  was  ever  found  there  in  a  nat've  state. 
Neither,  as  a  modern  author  observes,  if  the  Atlantic  navi- 
gation of  the  Carthaginians  was  all  along  the  coast,  can  we 
see  why  the  metals  should  have  been  brought  thither  for  sale 
from  Cornwall,  which  lies  just  as  near  Ushant,  whence  the 
trading  vessels  must  have  stretched  across  the  Channel. 
Lelewel  considers  the  Bay  of  Biscay  to  have  been  the  great 
recess  in  which  the  CEstrymnian  Islands  were  situated  ;  but 
the  Scilly  Isles,  it  is  well  known,  do  not  lie  there,  and  no 
efforts  will  make  the  description  of  the  cape,  bay.  and  isl- 
ands, given  in  Avienus,  correspond  with  the  real  appearance 
of  the  western  coast  of  Europe.  But,  on  the  whole,  there  is 
very  little  reason  to  dispute  the  fact,  that  the  southern  coast 
of  Britain  was  visited  by  Funic  merchantmen  ;  though  it 
must  be  acknowledged,  that  trierc  is  no  direct  proof  of  their 
having  proceeded  anv  farther  north.  The  amber  which  was 
conveyed  to  the  Mediterranean  may  have  been  purchased  on 
the  coast  of  Gaul,  whither  it  could  be  brought  overland  by 
the  Germans.  It  may  even  have  been  carried  thither  by  sea  ; 
for  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  Scandinavians,  even  at  that 
early  epoch,  were  no  less  expert  navijjators  than  they  were 
actually  found  to  be  at  the  very  dawn  of  history. f 

While  Hamilco  was  employed  in  surveying  the  western 
shores  of  Portugal  and  Spain,  his  brother  Hanno  conducted 
an  expedition  towards  the  south,  with  the  view  of  planting 
colonies  on  the  borders  of  Africa.  His  fleet  amounted  to 
sixty  large  ships,  having  on  board  30,000  persons,  who  had 

*  See  Heeren's  Historical  Researches,  vol.  i.,  p.  173. 
t  Foreign  Quarterly  Review,  No.  xxvii.,  p.  220,  &c. 


58  CONSTITUTION,  COMMERCE,  ETC. 


consented  to  occupy  new  lands  at  a  distance  from  Carthage. 
These  he  distributed  into  six  towns,  which  of  course  con- 
tained on  an  average  5,000  inhabitants.  They  consisted,  we 
are  told,  of  Liby-Phcenicians — the  descendants  of  the  natives 
and  of  the  Tyrian  emigrants — and  were  chosen,  not  from  the 
citizens,  but  from  the  peasantry  of  the  adjoinmg  districts. 
The  settlements  of  Hanno,  it  is  presumed,  did  not  extend 
beyond  the  boundaries  of  Fez  and  Morocco  ;  the  first  of  them, 
which  was  called  Thymatirium,  being  only  two  days'  sail 
from  the  termination  of  the  strait  or  promontory  of  Spartel. 
Next  to  that  is  mentioned  the  point  of  Soloe  or  Cape  Blanco, 
where  was  erected  a  temple  to  iS'eptune,  or,  as  Scylax  de- 
scribes it,  a  large  altar  decorated  with  bass-reliefs,  represent- 
ing human  figures,  lions,  and  dolphins.  Proceeding  a  day 
and  a  half  farther  south  along  the  coast,  the  navigator  selected 
places  for  five  towns, — Teechos,  Gytta,  Acra,  Melite,  and 
Arambe.  The  remotest  settlement  was  Kerne,  which,  it  is 
supposed,  must  be  sought  for  in  the  vicinity  of  Mogadore,  or, 
perhaps,  in  the  Bay  of  Santa  Cruz.* 

The  colonies  planted  by  Hanno  seem  to  have  been  the  first 
which  were  established  in  those  unfrequented  regions ;  at 
least  no  traces  are  found  in  his  narrative  of  any  community 
of  human  beings  having  fixed  their  abode  on  the  lands  that  he 
appropriated.  The  whole  length  of  the  coast  is  described  as 
a  discovery  which  he  appears  to  have  carried  beyond  the  Sen- 
egal, though  he  did  not  take  possession  of  all  the  territory  he 
explored.  As  to  his  settlements,  their  ultimate  fate  is  wrapped 
in  obscurity  ;  in  the  time  of  the  Roman  wars  they  had  ceased 
to  exist  as  Carthaginian  dependances,  and  had  probably  fal- 
len a  prey  to  the  tribes  of  the  neighbouring  Desert. 

Their  intercourse  with  the  Atlantic  shores  of  Africa,  would 
almost  necessarily  make  the  Carthaginians  acquainted  with 
some  of  those  numerous  islands  which  lie  scattered  in  the 
ocean. t    Diodorus,  accordingly,  relates,  that  the  Phoenicians 

*  Scylax.  Periplus,  p.  2.    Festus  Avienus,  v.  357. 
"  Ultra  has  columnas  propter  Europaj  latus 
Vicos  et  urbes  incolae  Carthaginis 
Tenucre  quondam." 
t  Diodor.  Siculus,  lib.  v.,  c.  19.    Heeren  remarks,  that  the 
description  in  the  text  could  not  apply  to  the  Canary  Islands. 
A  passage  in  Avienus  seems  to  allude  to  Teneriflfe  and  its  vol* 


OF  THE  ANCIENT  BARBARY  STATES.  59 


—a  name  which  he  frequently  applied  to  the  mariners  of  the 
Barbary  States — had  detected  an  island  many  days'  sail 
westward  from  Libya  ;  the  glowing  description  he  gives  of 
which  recalls  to  our  recollection  the  idea  of  such  happy  clus- 
ters as  have  from  time  to  time  been  brought  to  light  in  the 
South  Sea,  where  summer  always  prevails,  where  the  trees 
are  ever  green,  and  where  the  wants  of  the  inhabitants  are 
supplied  by  the  spontaneous  gifts  of  nature.  All  that  he  tells 
us,  of  its  being  situated  at  a  considerable  distance  in  the 
ocean,  of  its  streams  and  rivers,  of  its  productions,  its  fruits, 
and  foliage,  agrees  with  no  other  island  so  well  as  Madeira. 

Historians  and  geographers  have  long  disputed  as  to  the 
extent  of  the  navigation  which  the  ships  of  Carthage  accom- 
plished in  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Some  are  content  with  ex- 
tending the  limits  of  their  voyages  from  the  southern  coast 
of  Britain  on  the  north  to  Cape  Bojador  on  the  south  ;  while 
others,  conferring  upon  them  a  share  in  the  direct  trade  with 
the  Baltic,  conduct  their  ships  to  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula 
and  the  coast  of  Prussia  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other, 
to  the  estuary  of  the  Gambia  and  the  shores  of  Guinea.  It 
is  even  maintained,  that  they  crossed  to  America,  and  visited 
the  borders  of  the  New  World — an  opinion  founded  so  en- 
tirely upon  conjecture,  as  to  be  beyond  the^reach  of  fact  or 
reasoning,  were  we  to  undertake  its  refutation.  We  agree 
with  an  author  already  quoted,  that  "  at  the  time  Carthage 
was  most  flourishing,  she  traded  norfhward  directly  to  Brit- 
ain, and  indirectly  to  the  Baltic  ;  southward  to  the  Gambia 
by  sea,  and  by  caravans  far  into  the  interior  of  Africa;  while 
eastward  she  carried  on  an  active  commerce  with  all  parts  of 
the  Mediterranean,  and,  through  the  mother-city,  obtained 
the  productions  of  India."     She  may,  too,  have  purchased 

cano.  Beyond  the  Pillars  lies  an  island, — "  Ultra  has  colum- 
nas,"  &c. 

"  On  Ocean's  bosom  spread, 
Where  varying  herbs  in  wild  profusion  grow, 
Sacred  to  Saturn  is  the  land  esteemed  : 
And  Nature's  power  is  there  terrific  seen : 
For  when  by  chance  the  mariner  draws  nigh 
The  coast,  the  ambient  waters  rage  around, 
The  islaud  shakes  and  starts  among  the  waves, 
And  deeply  trembles  ;  while  the  ocean  lies 
Calm  in  the  distance,  silent  and  unmoved."— Ver.  164i  &c. 


60  CONSTITUTION,  COMMERCE,  ETC. 


slaves  from  the  Grecian  slave-dealers.  Her  commercial  rela- 
tions would  thus  extend  over  nearly  the  whole  of  the  known 
world,  and  would  only  be  surpassed  by  those  of  modem 
Europe  since  the  discovery  of  America,  and  of  the  passage 
to  the  East  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.* 

It  is  manifest  that  the  spirit  of  monopoly  was  a  chief  ele- 
ment in  the  Carthaginian  laws,  as  is  proved  by  their  commer- 
cial treaties  with  Rome,  and  from  the  fact  of  its  being  the 
custom  to  drown  the  crews  ot  such  vessels,  belonging  to  other 
nations,  as  were  found  in  the  vicinity  of  those  places  wiih  which 
they  carried  on  the  most  lucrative  traffic.  This  ardent  ri- 
valry is  assigned  by  Heeren  as  the  main  cause  why  their  trade 
was  not  more  extensive  in  the  eastern  parts  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, where  they  could  not  escape  a  very  active  competi- 
tion with  the  older  dealers. 

It  would  appear  that  the  expeditions  under  Hanno  -and 
Hamilco  took  place  about  480  years  before  the  reign  of  Au- 
gustus— a  period  when  Carthage  enjoyed  the  blessing  of  a 
profound  peace.  Her  progress  in  wealth,  population,  and 
refinement,  must  already  have  been  very  considerable.  A 
fleet  of  sixty  large  ships,  each  propelled  by  fifty  oars,  and  hav- 
ing on  board  30,000  emigrants,  denotes  the  power  and  con- 
dition of  a  prosperous  state.  Another  proof  of  her  advance- 
ment in  the  arts  and  enjoyments  of  social  life,  is  the  attention 
paid  by  her  citizens  to  agriculture  regarded  as  a  science. 
Pliny  relates,  ihat  when  the  Romans  overthrew  the  city  of 
Dido,  they  gave  the  libraries  found  there  to  their  allies,  the 
Nu'midians — a  circumstance  which  throws  some  light  upon 
the  manner  in  which  the  works  of  the  Carthaginian  histori- 
ans had  come  into  the  possession  of  King  Hiempsal.  The 
works  of  Mago  alone,  one  of  the  kings  or  suffetes,  extending 
to  twenty-eight  books,  were  translated  into  Latin  by  Solinus  ; 
some  fragments  of  which,  preserved  by  the  distinguished 
naturalist  to  whom  we  owe  our  knowledge  of  this  fact,  are 
sufficient  to  show,  that  the  royal  author  treated  fully  of  all 
kinds  of  husbandry,  agriculture,  planting,  breeding  of  stock, 
and  the  improvement  of  fruit-trees.  It  cannot,  then,  be 
doubted,  even  if  the  mention  of  libraries  failed  to  prove  it, 
that  there  was  a  Carthaginian  literature  ;  that  it  was  patron- 
ised by  the  great ;  and  had  already  passed  from  the  romance 

•  Foreign  Quarterly  Review,  No.  xxvii.,  p.  225. 


OF  THE  ANCIENT  BARBARY  STATES.  61 


of  poetry,  the  first  composition  of  all  rude  nations,  into  the 
more  didactic  form  of  prose.* 

All  accounts  agree  in  praising  the  high  state  of  cultivation 
found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Carthage.  We  learn  from 
Diodorus,  that  the  territory  through  which  Agathocles  led  his 
army,  after  landing  on  the  African  shore,  was  covered  with 
gardens  and  large  plantations,  everywhere  abounding  in  ca- 
nals, by  means  of  which  they  were  plentifully  watered.  A 
continual  succession  of  fine  estates  were  seen,  adorned  with 
elegant  buildings,  which  indicated  the  opulence  of  their  pro- 
prietors. These  dwellings,  says  he,  were  furnished  with 
every  thing  requisite  for  the  enjoyment  of  men  ;  the  owners 
having  accumulated  immense  stores  during  the  long  peace. 
The  lands  were  planted  v^^ith  vines,  with  palms,  and  with  many 
other  trees  bearing  fruit.  On  one  side  were  meadows  filled 
with  flocks  and  herds,  and  on  the  lower  grounds  were  seen 
numerous  brood-mares,  reserved  for  the  uses  of  the  army,  the 
chariot,  or  the  husbandman.  In  short,  the  whole  prospect 
displayed  the  riches  of  the  inhabitants  ;  while  the  higher 
ranks  had  very  extensive  possessions,  and  vied  with  one  an- 
other in  pomp  and  luxury.! 

Fifty  years  later,  when  the  dominion*  of  Carthage  were 
invaded  by  the  Romans,  a  similar  picture  is  given  by  Polyb- 
ius  of  the  wealth,  elegance,  and  cultivation  which  every- 
where adorned  them.  On  that  occasion,  a  number  of  splen- 
did villas  were  destroyed,  an  immense  booty  was  obtained  in 
cattle,  and  above  20,000  slaves  were  carried  av.^ay.  The 
same  historian  relates,  that  at  the  period  now  mentioned,  the 
better  class  of  the  people  drew  their  private  income  from 
their  own  estates  ;  the  pubhc  revenue  was  derived  from  the 
provinces.! 

We  have  already  alluded  to  the  land-trade  of  Carthage, 
which,  by  means  of  caravans,  she  appears  to  have  carried  far 
into  the  South,  the  East,  and  the  West.  Herodotus,  whose 
knowledge  of  ancient  Africa  was  much  more  complete  and 
accurate  than  hasty  critics  are  wont  to  imagine,  has  traced 
with  much  precia'on  the  routes  of  the  merchant-travel' 
lers  from  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Syrtis  to  Fezzan,  Si- 

"  Plin.  Hist.  Nat.,  lib.  xviii.,  c.  3. 
t  Diod.  Sicul.,  lib.  ix.,  c.  26,  &cc. 
t  Folyb.,  lib.  i.,  c.  5,  and  lib.  ii.,  c.  3, 4,  5. 
F 


62         CONSTITUTION,  COMMERCE,  ETC. 


wah  or  Ammonium,  Thebes,  the  regions  of  the  JoHba,  and 
even  the  borders  of  the  western  desert.  No  difficulties,  how- 
ever great,  no  dangers,  however  appalling,  can  check  the  ava- 
rice or  damp  the  courage  of  man,  when  wealth,  conquest,  or 
revenge,  becomes  the  motive  of  his  actions.  Gold,  precious 
stones,  drugs,  spices,  dates,  salt,  and  slaves,  were  the  objects 
upon  which  the  Phoenician  colonists  and  their  Libyan  sub- 
jects placed  the  greatest  value,  and  to  obtain  which  they  con- 
sented to  undergo  the  most  painful  toils,  and  encounter  the 
most  frightful  hazards  that  a  wilderness,  many  hundred  miles 
in  extent,  parched  by  the  sun,  disturbed  by  moving  sands, 
and  destitute  of  water,  could  present  to  the  imagination. 
By  these  means,  however — her  colonies,  her  fleets,  and  her 
internal  commerce — Carthage  became  one  of  the  most  pow- 
erful commonwealths  of  ancient  times  ;  and  by  the  fame 
which  she  acquired  as  the  patron  of  discovery  and  navigation, 
by  her  gallant  struggle  with  Rome,  the  victories  of  her  gen- 
erals, and  their  conquests  in  Italy,  Gaul,  and  Spain,  she  has 
conferred  upon  the  Barbary  States  a  degree  of  renown  which 
could  not  otherwise  have  fallen  to  their  lot. 

The  rulers  of  Carthage  have  been  blamed  for  yielding  to 
the  temptation  of  engaging  in  war.  It  has  been  imagined 
that,  had  they  followed  the  example  of  Tyre,  their  greatness 
would  never  have  been  impaired,  nor  their  stability  menaced  ; 
inasmuch  as  all  nations  would  have  shown  a  readiness  to 
trade  with  her,  if  she  had  noi  avowed  an  intention  to  con- 
quer a  settlement  in  every  country  where  her  crews  were 
permitted  to  land.  Experience  has  proved,  however,  that  an 
extensive  foreign  commerce  cannot  be  maintained  without 
territorial  possessions.  The  colonies  of  England,  Holland, 
and  France,  in  the  remotest  parts  of  the  globe,  seem  to 
establish  the  fact,  that  the  soldier,  if  he  do  not  precede,  will 
ever  follow  closely  in  the  footsteps  of  the  merchant. 

The  fate  of  this  celebrated  republic,  however,  was  hasten- 
ed, not  so  much  by  her  warlike  propensities  and  desire  of 
conquest,  as  by  the  necessity  which  was  imposed  upon  her  of 
employing  foreign  mercenaries  to  fight  her  battles.  She  en- 
listed, in  Africa,  Spain,  and  Gaul,  troops  who  could  have  no 
sincere  interest  in  her  prosperity  or  reputation,  and  who, 
upon  the  shghtest  reverse  of  fortune,  were  ready  to  take  part 
with  her  enemies,  and  even  to  draw  the  sword  under  their 
baaixers.    The  expense,  loo,  incident  to  protracted  wars,  by 


OF  THE  ANCIENT  BARBARY  STATES. 


63 


exhausting  her  ordinary  resources,  compelled  her  to  lay  op- 
pressive taxes  on  her  subjects,  and  more  especially  on  her 
African  dependances  ;  who,  it  is  said,  were  on  some  occa- 
sions obliged  to  surrender,  in  the  form  of  tribute,  not  less 
than  half  the  produce  of  their  lands.  Again,  by  employing 
in  the  field  her  Numidian  allies,  the  fearless  horsemen  of  the 
Sahara,  she  taught  them  to  render  their  courage  formidable, 
by  adding  to  it  the  valuable  qualities  of  discipline  and  subor- 
.  dmation  ;  and  accordingly,  when  the  final  contest  arose,  the 
Romans  found  most  sufficient  auxiUaries  in  the  squadrons  of 
Masinissa,  Svphax,  and  Juba,  who  were  eager  to  avenge  On 
the  proud  republic  the  injuries  which  their  countrymen  had 
formerly  sustamed  at  the  hands  of  the  Phoenician  settlers. 
The  fall  of  Carthage  has,  moreover,  been  ascribed  to  that 
neglect  of  her  maritime  forces  which  was  manifested  during 
the  last  Punic  war.  ^^'hen  Scipio  crossed  from  Sicily  to  Af- 
rica, there  was  not  a  fleet  to  oppose  him.  But  the  principal 
cause  of  her  decline  and  ultimate  overthrow  was  the  fierce 
hostility  of  rival  factions  within  her  own  walls.  Two  great 
parties,  arrayed  the  one  against  the  other,  indulged  their  mu- 
tual enmity  while  the  legions  were  at  her  gates  :  tyranny  on 
the  one  hand  was  met  by  turbulence  on  the  other  ;  and  each 
section  of  the  commonwealth,  with  the  language  of  patriotism 
in  their  mouths,  were  more  pleased  to  see  their  country  per- 
ish than  to  behold  the  ascendency  of  their  political  antago- 
nists. In  the  fate  of  Carthage  was  exemphfied  the  usual 
result  of  a  popular  government  and  of  civic  contention  :  the 
voice  of  clamour  is  silenced  only  by  the  shouts  of  a  triumph- 
ant foe,  who  puts  an  end  to  the  rivalry  of  parties  by  treading 
all  distinctions  under  foot. 

The  late  Emperor  of  France  was  wont  to  compare  the 
English  people  to  the  Carthaginians;  both  being  distinguish- 
ed by  their  success  in  commerce,  their  command  of  the  sea, 
and  their  numerous  colonies  :  And,  for  reasons  which  ap- 
peared satisfactory  to  his  penetrating  mind,  he  pi  edicted  that 
a  similar  fate,  originating  in  similar  causes,  would  at  no  dis- 
tant period  overtake  his  great  rival.  Let  us  hope  that  the 
voice  of  history  will  not  be  heard  in  vain  ;  and  that  the  er- 
rors of  past  ages  will  impress  modern  states  with  the  feeling* 
of  wisdom  and  caution. 


64 


MODERN  HISTORY  OF 


CHAPTER  III. 

Modern  History  of  the  Barhary  States. 

Time  when  the  Barbary  States  assumed  an  independent  Exist 
ence — The  Libyans  first  inhabited  Northern  Africa — Influence 
of  Phoenician  Colonies — Ancient  and  Modern  Divisions  of  the 
Country — Extent  of  Roman  Conquests — Revival  of  Carthage 
— Rebuilt  from  its  own  Ruins — Site  and  description  of  it — 
Remains  of  former  Magnificence — Mercenary  Conduct  of  Ro- 
manus,  Count  of  Africa — Sufferings  of  the  Tripolitans— Usur- 
pation of  Firmus— Victories  of  Theodosius — Death  of  Firmus 
— Insurrection  under  Gildo — Wisdom  and  Braver>-of  Stilicho 
— Death  of  Gildo— Rebellion  of  Heraclian— Error  of  Bonifa- 
cius — He  invites  the  V^andals— Progress  of  Genseric,  their 
General — Death  of  Bonifacius— Continued  Success  of  the 
Vandals— Fall  of  Carthage — Severe  Sufferings  of  the  Inhabi- 
tants— Policy  of  Genseric — Recreates  a  Navy — Sacks  Rome 
— Prosecutes  a  Maritime  War — Marjorian  meditates  the  Inva- 
sion of  Africa— His  Fleet  is  destroyed  by  Fire — Attempt  of  Ba- 
silicus — Loss  of  his  Ships — Death  of  Genseric — Accession  of 
Justinian— Usurpation  of  Geliaier  in  Africa — Belisarius  takes 
the  Command  there — Victory  over  Gelimer— He  reduces  Car- 
thage—  Conquest  of  Africa — Surrender  of  Gelimer — Decay  of 
the  Vandal  Power — Africa  gradually  relapses  into  Barbarism 
— Commerce  and  Agriculture  languish — Arrival  of  the  Sara- 
cens— Conduct  of  the  Prefect  Gregory — A^alour  of  Akbah — 
Dissension  among  the  Caliphs — Akbah  is  slain — Conduct  and 
Fate  of  Zobeir — Foundation  of  Kairwan — Hassan  retakes 
Carthage — The  Greek  Imperialists  defeated,  and  finally  leave 
the  Country — The  Moors  contend  tor  the  Sovereignty — Queen 
Cahina — Her  Success  and  Defeat — Union  of  the  Moors  and" 
Mohammedan  Arabs — Revolt  of  Ibrahim — Dynasty  of  the  Ag- 
labiies— Other  Dynasties  founded  by  Rostam  and  Edris— Rise 
of  the  Fatimites  — Of  the  Zeirites— "Emigration  of  Arabs  from 
the  Red  Sea — The  Almohades  and  Almoravides. 

As  it  was  not  till  about  the  time  when  the  ascendency  of 
the  Turks  was  established  in  the  Eastern  Empire,  that  the 
modern  kingdoms  of  Tripoli,  Tunis,  Algiers,  and  Morocco, 
claimed  the  notice  of  the  geographer  or  historian  as  separate, 
and  in  some  degree  independent  governments,  the  annals  of 
Northern  Africa,  down  to  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century, 


THE  BARBARY  STATES. 


65 


Tvill  be  most  conveniently  presented  under  one  head,  and  as 
applicable  to  the  whole  country  which  stretches  from  Gyrene 
to  the  Western  Ocean.  It  has  been  already  remarked,  that 
this  region,  if  we  follow  the  line  of  the  coast,  may  be  estima- 
ted at  not  less  than  2,000  miles  ;  though  its  breadth,  confined 
between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Sahara,  does  not  exceed 
150,  even  where  the  sandy  border  is  farthest  removed. 


Berbers. 

Till  the  arrival  of  the  Phoenicians,  that  fertile  colony  was 
inhabited  by  the  Libyans,  accounted  by  ancient  writers 
among  the  most  savage  of  mankind — a  race  of  wandering 
shepherds,  who,  in  our  times,  are  more  familiarly  known  by 
the  appellation  of  Berbers,  from  which  the  whole  maritime 
district  has  taken  its  name.  The  proximity  of  the  Tyrian 
settlement  produced,  to  some  extent,  on  their  character  and 
habits,  those  changes  which  a  civilized  people  hardly  ever 


66 


MODERN  HISTORY  OF 


fail  to  accomplish  among  rude  tribes,  strangers  to  reflection, 
and  to  all  the  artificial  enjoyments  of  hfe.  But,  even  at  the 
present  day,  the  descendants  of  those  simple  Nomades  occu- 
py a  prominent  station  in  the  land  of  their  fathers  ;  and  are, 
it  is  thought,  easily  distinguishable  from  the  Moors,  as  well 
as  from  those  other  families  of  later  origin,  whose  lineage  be- 
longs to  the  central  parts  of  Asia  or  even  of  Europe.  The 
preceding  representation  exhibits  the  features  and  dress  of 
these  children  of  the  Desert,  who,  it  will  be  observed,  bear 
no  slight  resemblance  to  the  inhabitants  of  Southern  Arabia, 
with  whom  their  oldest  tradition  connects  them. 

It  has  appeared  that,  under  the  immediate  jurisdiction  of 
Carthage,  the  neighbouring  land  became  the  centre  of  com- 
merce and  of  empire  ;  though  the  remains  of  that  renowned 
commonwealth  must  now  be  sought  in  the  disorderly  states 
of  Tripoli  and  Tunis.  The  Numidia,  which  was  the  object 
of  contention  between  Jugurtha  and  Masinissa,  is  at  present 
subject  to  the  military  government  of  Algiers  ;  though  a  large 
portion  of  that  kingdom  was  withdrawn  in  the  reign  of  Au- 
gustus, and  erected  into  a  proconsular  province,  under  the 
title  cf  Mauritania  Caesariensis.  The  true  country  of  the 
Moors,  which,  from  the  ancient  city  of  Tingi,  or  Tangier, 
was  denominated  Tingitana,  is  placed  in  our  maps  as  the 
sovereignty  of  Fez.  The  Romans  extended  their  sway  as 
far  as  the  ocean,  comprehending  Sallee,  once  so  infamous  for 
its  piracies  ;  and  Mequinez,  a  residence  of  the  Emperor  of 
Morocco,  may  still  be  identified  as  one  of  their  foundations. 

Under  the  fostering  care  of  the  imperial  government,  more 
especially  as  administered  by  Augustus,  the  first  of  its  sov- 
ereigns, Carthage  emerged  from  itl^ruins,  and  became  once 
more  the  capital  of  Africa  Propria,  the  territory  to  which 
the  senate  thought  it  meet  to  restrict  this  designation.  In 
truth,  if  a  judgment  may  be  formed  from  the  relics  which 
still  remain,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  principal  grandeur 
of  the  new  city  was  bestowed  upon  it,  at  a  period  subsequent 
to  the  age  of  the  beneficent  ruler  just  named,  and  when  ar- 
chitectural taste  had  already  somewhat  declined.  Several  of 
the  mutilated  statues,  we  are  told,  are  in  the  worst  style  of 
the  Lower  Empire.  There  are,  notwithstanding,  many  proofs 
that  the  birthplace  of  Hannibal  must  have  been  occupied  soon 
after  its  first  and  violent  destruction  ;  several  of  the  walls  and 
fven  of  the  towers  being  composed  of  ancient  fragments  con- 


THE  BARBARY  STATES. 


67 


fusedly  piled  together.  Most  of  the  arcades  and  pubh'c  build- 
ings, too,  appear  to  have  been  made  up  of  massy  blocks  of 
sandstone  and  conglomerate,  disposed  in  layers,  without  ce- 
ment, or  with  a  species  of  it  which  has  almost  entirely  dis- 
solved. The  greatest  care  seems  to  have  been  lavished 
upon  the  temples.  These  edifices  were  constructed  in  a 
style  of  the  utmost  magnificence,  and  adorned  with  immense 
columns  of  granite  and  marble  ;  the  shafts  of  which,  general- 
ly speaking,  consisted  of  a  single  piece. 

Even  here,  however,  there  are  indications  that  the  Roman 
Carthage  was  indebted  for  some  of  its  decorations  to  the  Car- 
thage founded  by  the  Phoenicians.  Many  of  the  pillars  now 
found  are  of  the  Corinthian  order,  and  belong,  of  course,  to 
an  improved  epoch  of  the  art :  but  among  them  are  also  seen 
enormous  masses  of  a  different  description,  displaying  capi- 
tals and  triglyphs,  which  render  it  extremely  probable  that  a 
structure  of  Doric  architecture  had  previously  occupied  the 
site  at  present  covered  with  their  common  ruins.  The  more 
modern  city,  at  all  events,  must  have  been  encompassed  with 
strong  walls  of  solid  masonry,  furnished  with  magnificent 
gates,  and  ornamented  with  spacious  porticoes.  It  was  divi- 
ded, too,  from  its  principal  suburb  on  the  east  by  a  river,  the 
mouth  of  which,  forming  an  extensive  basin,  was  called  the 
*'  Cothon,"  defended  at  its  narrow  entrance  by  two  strong 
fortifications,  connected  with  which  were  a  couple  of  moles, 
still  seen  stretching  out  under  the  water.  On  the  banks  of 
this  stream,  the  bed  of  which  continues  to  be  occupied  by  a 
rivulet,  are  the  remains  of  various  aqueducts,  and  some 
large  reservoirs  in  excellent  preservation.  Between  the  prin- 
cipal cisterns  and  a  torrent  which  passes  to  the  westward  of 
Leplis,  some  mounds  have  been  constructed  across  the  plain, 
by  means  of  which  the  winter  rains  were  conveyed  for  the 
use  of  the  city.  On  the  eastern  bank  of  the  river  already 
mentioned  are  the  vestiges  of  a  galley-port  and  of  numerous 
baths,  together  with  a  circus  richly  ornamented  with  obelisks 
and  columns.  The  whole  plain,  indeed,  from  the  Margib 
Hills  to  the  Cinyphus,  presents  unequivocal  proofs  of  great 
opulence  and  a  dense  population.* 

♦  Beechey,  p.  74.  Leo  Africanus  remarks,  "  Notissimum  hoc 
•  atque  antiquissisimum  oppidum  a  quodam  populo  extructum  fuit 
qvu  ex  Syria  hue  venerat.  Alii  vero  a  Regina  quadam  conditum 


68 


MODERN  HISTORY  OF 


These  fragments  of  ancient  magnificence  leave  no  doubt 
as  to  the  care  bestowed  by  the  Romans  upon  the  capital  of 
their  Africa,  however  difficult  it  may  be  to  determine  the 
proportion  of  them  which  belongs  to  a  remoter  period.  Nor 
can  it  be  necessary  to  remark  that  the  second  Carthage, 
with  the  provinces  subjected  to  its  jurisdiction,  shared  largely 
in  those  vicissitudes  and  political  commotions  which  shook 
the  empire  itself,  both  before  and  after  the  reign  of  Constan- 
tine.  At  one  time  three  hundred  cities  are  said  to  have  ac- 
knowledged her  authority,  after  she  had  risen  with  new 
splendour  from  her  ashes,  and  when  she  had  once  more  ac- 
quired, as  a  provincial  metropolis,  all  the  advantages  which 
can  be  separated  from  independent  sovereignty.* 

The  first  calamities  which  Roman  Africa  endured,  arose 
from  the  ferocious  character  of  her  neighbours,  and  the  ava- 
rice of  those  who  were  sent  by  the  imperial  court  to  exercise 
the  government.  In  the  reign  of  Valentinian,  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  fourth  century,  the  military  command  was  in- 
trusted to  a  chief  whose  sordid  views  were  the  leading  mo- 
tives of  his  conduct,  and  who,  on  most  occasions,  acted  as 
if  he  had  been  the  enemy  of  the  province,  and  the  friend  of 
the  barbarians  by  whom  it  was  assailed.  The  three  flourish- 
ing cities  of  Oea,  Leptis,  and  Sabrata,  which,  under  the 
name  of  Tripolis,  had  long  constituted  a  federal  union,  were 
obliged,  for  the  first  time,  to  shut  their  gates  in  order  to  pro- 
tect the  lives  and  property  of  their  inhabitants  from  the  sav- 
ages of  the  Desert.  After  much  suffering,  the  civic  rulers 
applied  to  Romanus,  entitled  the  Count  of  Africa,  entreating 
him  to  march  to  their  relief,  and  promising  to  raise,  without 
delay,  the  supplies  of  money  and  camels  which  he  had  made 
the  condition  of  their  obtaining  his  protection. 

But  the  mercenary  general,  hoping  that  the  fears  of  the 
Tripolitans  would  hasten  their  gifts,  delayed  his  assistance  till 
many  of  the  citizens  were  surprised  and  massacred,  thear 
villages  burnt,  their  suburbs  plundered,  and  the  vines  and 
fruit-trees  of  their  fine  territory  rooted  up  or  consumed  with 

malunt.— Quare  nihil  est  in  praesentia  quod  de  hujus  conditori- 
bus  affirmem  ;  nam  praeterquam  quod  vari^  Afri  atque  historio- 
graphi  inter  se  dissentiant,  nemo  est  illorum  qui  inde  aliquid 
Bcriptum  reliquetit  nisi  post  Romani  imperii  decrementum.— P. 
553,  edit.  1632. 

♦  Strab.  Geog.,  lib  xvii 


THE   BARBARY  STATES. 


69 


fire.  A  deputation  to  Rome  was  instantly  resolved  upon  by 
the  assembly  of  the  three  cities,  the  members  of  which  were 
instructed  to  inform  Valentinian  of  their  deplorable  condition, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  to  convey  to  his  ears  the  well-founded 
complaint,  that  they  were  ruined  by  the  enemy,  and  betrayed 
by  his  lieutenant.  The  count,  however,  contrived  to  anti- 
cipate this  intelligence,  which  must  have  endangered  his 
command  and  perhaps  his  life,  and  to  impress  upon  the  minds 
of  the  imperial  council,  that  the  m>irmurs  against  him  had  no 
other  foundation  than  the  cowardice  or  disafi'ection  of  the 
provincialists.  An  investigation  was  commanded  by  the 
emperor,  who  appears  to  have  been  animated  with  a  sincere 
desire  to  discover  the  truth,  and  to  pronounce  an  award  ac- 
cording to  justice.  But  Romanus  experienced  as  little  dif- 
ficulty in  deceiving  or  corrupting  the  commissioners,  as  he 
had  to  encounter  in  his  attempts  upon  the  honesty  of  the 
supreme  government.  The  charge  against  him  was  declared 
to  be  false  ;  the  information  lodged  by  the  people  of  Tripolis 
was  interpreted  as  the  proof  of  a  conspiracy  ;  and  orders 
were  given  to  prosecute  the  authors  of  it  as  traitors  to  their 
lawful  sovereign.  The  inquiries  were  managed  with  so 
much  dexterity,  that  the  citizens  of  Leptis,  who  had  sus- 
tained a  siege  of  eight  days,  were  compelled  to  contradict 
the  truth  of  their  own  decrees,  and  to  censure  the  behaviour 
of  their  own  deputies.  A  sentence,  sanctioned  by  Valenti- 
nian, condemned  the  president  of  the  Tripolitan  council  to 
death  ;  and,  accordinglv,  this  distinguished  person,  as  well 
as  four  others  of  similar  rank,  was  publicly  executed,  as 
accomplice  in  an  imaginary  treason.* 

This  cruel  and  unjust  decision,  by  showing  the  subjects  of 
the  Roman  colony  th::t  they  were  excluded  from  the  benefits 
of  an  equal  government,  diministied  whatever  affection  or 
confidence  they  might  entertain  towards  the  masters  of  Africa. 
An  occurrence  soon  took  place,  which  exposed  their  alle- 
giance to  a  severe  test.  Firmus,  the  son  of  Nabal,  a  Moor- 
ish prince,  had  forced  his  way  to  the  occupation  of  his  bar- 
barian sovereignty  by  destroying  the  hfe  of  a  brother,  whose 
birth  gave  him  a  better  claim,  and  who,  moreover,  enjoyed 
the  patronage  of  the  Romans.  Imitating  the  conduct  of 
Jugurtha,  this  usurper  had  recourse  at  once  to  policy  and 


*  Ammian.  Marcell.,  lib.  xviii.,  c.  6. 


70 


Modern  history  op 


anns ;  but  finding  the  former  unavailing,  and  that  the  count 
was  about  to  prove  an  inexorable  enemy,  he  took  the  field  at 
the  head  of  a  pov(?erful  body  of  troops,  and  bade  defiance  to 
his  resentment.  The  authority  of  Firnius  was  soon  estab- 
lished in  all  the  provinces  of  Numidia  and  Mauritania  ;  while 
the  indiscriminating  fury  with  which  he  pursued  his  con- 
quests along  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  compelled  or 
induced  many  of  the  provincialists  to  join  his  standard.* 

Romanus,  whose  talents  were  only  displayed  in  the  arts  of 
oppression  and  fraud,  found  himself  unequal  to  oppose  the 
victorious  insurgents,  who  already  possessed,  as  confederates 
or  vassals,  nearly  all  the  towns  between  Caesarea  and  the 
ocean.  Africa,  accordingly,  must  have  been  severed  from 
the  empire,  had  not  Theodosius  been  sent  to  restore  its 
affairs,  and  to  repel  the  ravages  of  the  Moors.  Firmus, 
though  his  arms  and  treasures  were  still  undiminished,  gave 
way  to  despair  as  soon  as  he  learned  that  a  commander  so 
renowned  had  landed  on  the  coast.  At  first,  he  had  recourse 
to  an  apparent  submission,  with  a  view  to  deceive  the  vigil- 
ance of  his  opponent ;  and  he  even  attempted  to  corrupt  the 
soldiers  whom  he  dared  not  to  encounter  in  the  field.  The 
imperial  lieutenant,  who  was  not  ignorant  of  the  character  of 
the  prince  with  whom  he  condescended  to  negotiate,  listened 
to  his  expressions  of  repentance  and  promises  of  fidelity ; 
but,  at  the  same  time,  kept  a  watchful  eye  over  his  proceed- 
ings, and  was  busy  in  making  preparations  for  the  war  in 
which  he  was  aware  that  all  their  professions  of  mutual 
friendship  must  ultimately  terminate.  Nor  was  it  long  be- 
fore these  suspicions  were  realized.  A  conspiracy,  which 
aimed  at  the  life  of  Theodosius,  was  detected,  and  involved 
in  capital  punishment  seme  of  the  principal  adherents  of  the 
Mauritanian  chief,  although  he  himself,  who  was  ready  to 
profit  by  their  success,  effected  his  escape  into  his  native  do- 
minions, and  left  them  to  their  fate.  But  the  Roman  general 
having  determined  that  his  life  also  should  pay  the  penalty 
of  his  rashness,  in  presuming  to  attack  the  subjects  of  the 
empire,  pursued  him  into  the  fastnesses  of  Mount  Atlas,  and 
finally  succeeded  in  making  him  prisoner.  Firmus,  however, 
resolved  to  disappoint  the  triumph  of  his  adversary,  who  had 
meant  to  make  him  a  public,  example ;  and,  adopting  the 


*  Ammian.  Marcell.,  lib,  xxix.,  c.  4. 


THE  BARBARr  STATES. 


71 


maxims  of  his  age  and  country  as  to  the  right  of  the  human 
being  to  shorten  or  protract  his  own  existence,  relieved  him- 
self from  shame  by  committing  suicide. 

A.  D.  386.  But  the  death  of  this  tyrant  did  not  secure 
permanent  tranquilUty  to  the  African  provinces.  Gildo,  his 
brother,  had  been  allowed  to  retain  the  vast  possessions 
which  had  been  forfeited  by  treason ;  and  as  his  fidelity  and 
services  to  the  empire  seemed  to  merit  a  still  higher  reward, 
he  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  count,  and  invested  with  the 
command  of  the  Roman  territory.  As,  however,  his  power 
increased,  his  insolence  and  cruelty  became  daily  more  in- 
tolerable :  and,  profilmg  by  the  dissensions  which  preceded 
the  accession  of  Theodosius  to  the  throne,  he  hesitated  not 
to  announce  himself  the  sovereign  of  Africa.  During  twelve 
years,  the  country  groaned  under  the  domination  of  an  up- 
start, who  seemed  at  once  to  disregard  his  native  land,  and 
to  encourage  the  factions  by  which  it  was  divided.  At 
length,  when  Arcadius  was  elevated  to  the  government  of 
the  East,  the  count,  who  had  promised  to  respect  the  au- 
thority of  Honorius,  his  rightful  sovereign,  chose  to  transfer 
to  the  former  his  allegiance  and  aid,  which  the  ministers  of 
that  weak  prince  advised  him  to  accept.  But  at  this  impor- 
tant crisis  the  councils  of  the  West  were  directed  by  Stilicho, 
a  brave  soldier  and  experienced  statesman,  who  prevailed 
upon  the  senate  to  denounce  Gildo  as  a  rebel  and  public 
enemy.  Troops  were  assembled  and  transports  were  pre- 
pared to  carry  the  revenge  of  the  republic  against  the  un- 
grateful Moor,  to  strip  him  of  the  honours  which  he  had 
abused,  and  to  punish  the  numerous  crimes  laid  to  his  charge. 
The  command  of  a  small  army  of  veterans  was  confided  to 
Mascezel,  another  son  of  the  house  of  Nabal,  who,  being 
obliged  to  fly  from  the  ferocious  jealousy  of  his  brother,  had 
sought  refuge  in  Italy,  where  he  heard  of  the  inhuman  mas- 
sacre of  his  wife  and  children,  whom  he  was  compelled  to 
leave  behind.* 

A.  D.  398.  Gildo,  who  soon  received  notice  of  the  prep- 
arations which  were  making  against  him,  exerted  his  utmost 
activity  aijd  means  to  collect  an  army  that  might  successfully 
repel  the  meditated  invasion.  He  endeavoured,  by  the  most 
profuse  liberality,  to  secure  the  attachment  of  the  regular 


»  Claudian.  de  Bell.  Gild.,  v.  389,  <Sm:.  Orosius,  lib.  vii.,  c.  36^ 


72 


MODERN  HISTORY  OF 


troops  who  had  joined  in  his  revolt ;  while  he  drew  from  the 
deserts  of  Getulia  and  the  valleys  of  Atlas  a  large  body  of 
iiatives  who  were  accustomed  to  regard  him  as  their  hered- 
itary prince.  Seeing  around  him  a  host  amounting,  it  is 
said,  to  70,000  men,  he  boasted  that  his  cavalry  would  tram- 
ple under  their  horses'  feet  the  few  cohorts  which  accom- 
panied his  brother,  or  drive  them  back  into  the  sea.  But  the 
issue  of  the  first  battle  disappointed  all  his  hopes ;  the  sense 
of  duty  returned  to  the  legionary  soldiers  on  whom  he  chiefly 
relied  ;  and  his  Numidians,  perceiving  themselves  deserted 
by  their  confederates,  fled  in  irretrievable  confusion.  The 
vanquished  despot  threw  himself  into  a  ship  and  attempted 
to  escape  into  Greece  ;  but  the  wind  proving  contrary,  the 
mariners  were  under  the  necessity  of  returning  to  the 
African  shore,  where  he  was  immediately- seized  and  com- 
mitted to  a  dungeon.  Aware  of  the  insult  and  pains  which 
awaited  him,  siiould  he  be  delivered  either  to  Mascezel  or 
the  Romans,  he  imitated  the  example  of  Firmus,  and  with 
his  own  hands  put  an  end  to  his  life.* 

A.  or  413.  But  Africa,  at  the  troubled  period  now  under 
our  consideration,  did  not  long  enjoy  the  blessing  of  peace 
procured  for  it  by  the  wise  measures  of  Stilicho.  The  con- 
sternation occasioned  by  the  invasion  of  the  Goths  had  hardly 
passed  away,  when  Heraclian,  who  presided  over  that  prov- 
ince, displayed  the  stnndard  of  rebellion  and  assumed  the 
title  of  enipero;.  Collecting  a  formidable  army,  which  he 
conveyed  across  the  Mediterranean  in  3,000  boats,  he  landed 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber,  with  the  intention  of  proceeding 
to  Rome;  but,  being  met  on  the  way  by  one  of  the  imperial 
commanders  at  tlie  head  of  an  inferior  force,  he  sustained  a 
severe  defeat,  which  compelled  him  to  relinquish  his  hazard- 
ous enterprise.  Upon  returning  to  Carthage,  he  found  that 
the  whole  country,  disdaining  his  pretensions  to  a  dignity  to 
which  his  talents  were  uiitv^jual,  had  returned  to  their  alle- 
gi^ce.  He  soon  d  scover.^d,  too,  hat  the  punishment  of 
unguccessRil  tr^asori  awa.ted  h;m  ;  he  was  condemned  to  be 
behtad'cd,  and  his  fortune,  a-nouiiiinir  to  nenrlv  200,000/.  of 
oar  money,  was  confiscated  for  the  use  of  the  public,  or  con- 
ferred upon  his  conqueiOr.+. 


*  Zosimns,  lib.  v.    Cla':dian.      Cons.  S;i  ich  ,  v.  .357, 

1  Oroa.,  ub.  yu.,  c.  42.   Zosiiu.,lib.  vi.  Sozomen.,  lib.  ix.,  c,  13 


THE   BARBARY  STATES. 


73 


A.  D.  427.  The  time,  however,  was  now  fast  approaching 
when  the  African  provinces  were  to  be  lost  to  ihe  Roman 
empire.  Under  the  administration  of  Placidia,  who  directed 
the  government  of  the  West  in  the  name  of  her  son,  Valen- 
tinian  the  Third,  the  safety  of  the  commonwealth  was  sacri- 
ficed to  the  jealousy  of  two  chiefs,  .^tius  and  Bonifacius. 
The  latter,  whose  conduct  had  been  misrepresented  at  court, 
was  recalled  from  his  command  ;  when,  apprehensive  that  his 
hfe  was  in  danger,  he  resolved  upon  the  most  desperate  meas- 
ures, in  order  to  defeat  the  designs  of  his  enemies.  -Not 
satisfied  with  arming  the  provincials  and  declaring  his  inde- 
pendence, he  invited  from  Spain  the  aid  of  the  Vandals,  who, 
led  by  their  kin'g,  the  sanguinary  Genseric,  crossed  the 
Straits  and  established  their  camp  in  Mauritania.  His  fol- 
^  lowers,  who  did  not  at  first  exceed  50,000,  received  a  rapid 
augmentation  of  very  active  aUies.  The  Moors,  who  had 
endured  rather  than  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  Rome, 
seized  with  eagerness  an  Occasion  so  favourable  for  abjuring 
it,  as  well  as  for  gratifying  their  revenge  on  their  ancient 
oppressors.  Thousands  of  them  issued  from  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Sahara,  and  the  wilds  of  the  mountain-range  by 
which  its  northern  limits  are  defined  ;  and,  regardless  of 
future  consequences  as  they  might  affect  their  native  govern- 
ments, placed  themselves  under  the  banners  of  the  warlike 
prince  who  had  vowecl  hostility  to  their  enemies.  An  ac- 
cession to  his  numbers  was  also  obtained  from  the  heretical 
Donatisls,  who  had  been  reqently  excelled  from  the  Catholic 
church,  and  subjected  to  severities  little  in  harmony  with  the 
mild  spirit  of  the  Gospel.  To  these  persecuted  fanatics, 
Genseric  appeared  in  the  light  of  a  powerful  deliverer,  from 
whose  zeal,  not  less  opposed  than  their  own  to  the^  orthodox 
faith,  they  might  reasouably  expect  a  repeal  of  those  hateful 
edicts  of  which  they  had  been  "made  the  victims.  It  admits 
not  of  any  doubt,  that  the  co-operation  of  these  dissentients 
from  the  established  creed  contributed  materially  to  the  con- 
quest of  Africa  ;  and,  that  the  loss  of  the  most  important 
province  of  the  Western  Empire  was  at  least  accelerated  by 
the  intolerant  spirit  whieh  then  prevailed  among -the  domi- 
nant sect  of  Christians.* 

*  Chronicles  of  Prosper  and  idatlus,  quoted  by  Gibbon,  chap-  - 
ter  xxxiii. 

G 


74 


MODERN  HISTORY  OF 


A.  D.  430.  No  sooner  had  Bonifacius  discovered  the  fraud 
of  his  rival,  than  he  deeply  regretted  the  precipitance  of 
which  he  had  been  guilty  in  inviting  the  alliance  of  the  bar- 
barians. But  amid  the  confusion  and  distress  to  which  the 
province  was  already  reduced,  his  repentance  was  unavailing  ; 
for,  although  Carthage  and  certain  other  Roman  garrisons 
professed  their  readiness  to  obey  the  orders  of  Valentinian, 
the  country  at  large  was  under  the  control  of  the  Vandals, 
who  could  not  be  prevailed  upon  to  relinquish  their  prey. 
Assembling  the  small  band  of  veterans  who  still  adhered  to 
his  standard,  and  such  provincial  troops  as  seemed  worthy 
of  his  confidence,  he  resolved  to  make  onfe  effort  to  retrieve 
the  bad  effects  of  his  error,  by  attacking  Genseric  in  the  field. 
A  battle  was  fought,  in  which,  though  the  count  displayed 
equal  courage  and  skill,  he  was  worsted  with  considerable 
loss,  and  compelled  to  leave  his  defenceless  territory  to  the 
rage  of  a  savage  conqueror. 

The  misery  inflicted  upon  Northern  Africa  by  the  soldiers, 
and  more  especially  by  the  native  alhes,  of  this  celebrated 
leader,  has  been  described  in  vivid  colours  by  several  writers, 
both  ecclesiastical  arid  civil.  Seven  fruitful  provinces,  it  is 
said,  were  destroyed  by  these  invaders.  Wherever  they  met 
resistance,  they  put  all  to  the  sword  ;  when  a  city  was  taken, 
its  defenders  were  buried  in  its  ruins  ;  and  where  hidden 
wealth  was  suspected,  torture  was  applied,  without  remorse, 
to  both  sexes  and  all  ages.  They  took  pleasure  in  effacing 
every  mprk  of  civilization  'and  improvement  ;  rooting  up 
trees,  whether  planted  for  use  or  for  ornament,  pulling  down 
chvirches,  and  even  slanghlering  the,  inhabitants  in  order  that 
their  unburied  bodies  might  infect  the  air,  and  spread  still 
farther  the  ravages  of  mortality.  It  may  well  be  believed, 
that  the  generous  mind  of  B.inifacius  vsfis  painfully  distressed 
by  beholding  the  ruin  which  he  had  occasioned,'  the  rapid 
progress  of  which  he  was  totally  unable  to  repress.  After 
the  loss  of  the  battle  already  mentioned,  he  retired  into  Hippo 
Regius,  now  called  Bona,  where  he  was  instantly  besieged 
by  Genseric,  who  regarded  him  as  the  only  obstacle  to  the 
fulfilment  of  all  his  wishes  relative  to  Africa.*  ^ 

*  Marmol.  L'Afrique,  tome  ii.,  p.  434.  He  tells  us  that  the 
Bona  of  mwdern' geographers  was  formerly  named  Hippo  :  "  On 
la  nonimoit  autrefois  Hippone,  qui  est  sur  la  coste  de  la  raer 
Mediterran^e  au  golfe  de  Numidie." 


THE  BARBARY  STATES. 


75 


The  Vandals  did  not  display,  in  the  reduction  of  strong- 
holds, the  same  military  qualities  -which  secured  to  them  so 
many  victories  in  the  open  plain  ;  and  hence,  fourteen  months 
were  spent  before  any  material  impression  was  made  on  the 
walls  or  resources  of  Hippo.  The  wants  of  the  garrison 
were  supplied  by  sea ;  the  sick  were  refreshed,  and  the 
wounded  removed  ;  while  the  besiegers,  who  relied  exclu- 
sively upon  the  surrounding  country  for  provisions,  were 
occasionally  compelled  by  the  pressure  of  famine  to  relinquish 
their  attempt.  At  length,  a  powerful  army,  composed  as 
well  of  the  troops  of  the  East  as  of  the  West,  debarked  on 
the  coast,  with  orders  not  only  to  relieve  the  count  from  the 
disgrace  of  a  protracted  blockade*,  but  also  io  drive  the  bar- 
barians from  the  province. 

Bonifacius,  finding  himself  at  the  head  of  a  force  at  once 
so  numerous  end  well  appointed,  resolved  to  give  battle  to 
his  former  ally  ;  and  with  this  intention  he  marched  out 
against  him  into  the  neighbouring  fields,  where  he  made 
arrangements  for  a  decisive  conflict.  The  combatants  met 
with  equal  eagerness — the  one  to  avenge  the  injuries  which 
had  been  inflicted  upon  the  property  and  reputation  of  the 
empire,  the  other  to  complete  the  subjugation  of  a  country 
which  he  was  determined  to  add  to  his  numerous  conquests. 
On  this  occasion,  as  well  as  on  the  former,  the  fortune  of 
war  declared  in  favour  of  the  Vandals ;  the  legions  of  Rome 
and  the  squadrons  who  followed  As{)ar  from  the  shores  of 
the  Bosphorus,  were  scattered  by  the  impetuous  onset  of  the 
rude  warriors  of  the  North  ;  and  the  Italian  general,  who  no 
longer  put  any  confidence  in  arms,  fled  to  the  ships  with  the 
remainder  of  his  troops.  It  may  not  be  unseasonable  to 
remark,  that  the  imperial  lieutenant  who,  to  fortify  his  private 
interests,  invited  a  furious  enemy  into  his  government,  fell  in 
a  skirmish  with  JEtius,  who  had  originally  poisoned  his  mind 
with  suspicion,  and  drawn  upon  him  the  frown  of  the  court.* 

A.  D.  431.  After  this  distinguished  success,  the  progress 
of  the  Vandals  was  more  rapid  and  destructive  than  ever. 
But,  as  is  usual  in  all  such  cases,  Genseric  soon  discovered 
that  the  distracted  state  of  the  country,  and  the  multitude 
of  factions,  whence  he  had<ierived  so  much  advantage  in  his 
struggle  with  the  Romans,  would  prevent  him  hom,  consolida- 

*  Procopius  I)e  Bell  Var.ida.1.,  lib^i,  c.  3. 


76 


MODERN  HISTORY  OF 


ting  his  power  as  sovereign  of  Northern  Africa.  Influenced 
by  such  considerations,  he  entered  into  a  treaty  with  the 
enniperor,  whereby  he  bound  himself  -to  cedf  that  extensive 
legion  which  constitutes  the  modern  kingdoms  of -Morocco 
and  Algiers,  and  was  known  to  ancient  history  under  the 
denomination  r)f  the  Three  Mauritanias..  He  perceived,  in 
fact,  that  without  a  large  maritime  force  he  could  not  defend 
the  whole  line  of  coast  extending"  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
to  the  remotest  bounds  of  Tripolis  ;  and,  accordingly,  acting 
npon  the  most  obvious  political  motives,  he  consented  to  re- 
linquish a  territory  which  it.  would  -have  proved  almost  im- 
possible for  him  to  retain. 

But  his  apparent  moderation  was  only  meant  as  a  cloak  to 
conceal  his  ambitious  designs.  He  had  fixed  his  eyes  on 
Carthage,  the  Rome,  as  it  was  called,  of  the  African  king- 
doms ;  and,  while  he  permitted  the  subjects  of  Valentinian- 
to  occupy  the  western  deserts-, "he  pushed  en  with  the  deter- 
mination to  make  himself  master  of  the  provincial  capitak 
This  celebrated  city  appears  to  have  been  taken  by  surprise  ; 
at  least  no  details  of  siege  or  battle  are  supplied  by  the 
historians  who  record  its  fall ;  though  there  is  in  their  state- 
ments the  most  perfect  agreement  as  to  the  date  of  its  over* 
throw,  and  the  complete  desolation  by  which  it  was  accom- 
panied. In  the  year  439,  being  nearly  sir  centuries  after  its 
destruction  by  Publius  Emilianus  Scipio,  the  colony  and  town 
of  Dido  became  the  booty  of  ignorant  soldiers,  whose  maxim 
it  Was  to  live  by  their  swords.* 

The  King  of  the  Vandals,  whatever  may  have  been  his 
private  wishes,  could  not  save  from  pillage  the  wealthy  me- 
tropolis which  had  just  fallen  into  his  hands.  x-Vfter  per- 
mitting his  troops  to  enjoy  the  usual  freedoms  consequent 
upon  a  successful  assault,  he  issued  an  edict,  commanding  all 
persons  to  deliver  into  the  hands-  of  certain  officers  their 
gold,  silver,  jewels,  and  other  valuable  effects-,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  giving  an  assurance,  that  the  slightest  attempt  to 
conceal  any  part  of  their  property  would  be  punished  with 
death,  as  an  act  of  treason  against  the  state.  The  lands, 
also,  were  measured  with  suitable  care,  that  they  might  be 
divided  among  the  triumphant  warriors  according  to  their 
respective  rank  or  merits  ;  Genseric  reserving  for  his  personal 


*  Procopius  De  Bell.  Vandal.,  Ub.  i.,  c.  5. 


THE  BARBARY  STATES. 


77 


share  the  fertile  domain  of  Byzacivim,  with  the  adjacent  ter- 
ritory of  Numidia  and  GetuHa.  It  is  impossible  to  measure 
the  losses,  sufferings,  and  privations^which  the  higher  class 
of  citizens  were  doomed  to  endure  under  the  military  despotism 
now  imposed  upon  them  by  their  conquerors.  The  Christian 
writers  of  that  age,  who  witnessed  the  misery  which  they 
could  not  relieve,  have  deplored  in  eloquent  terms  the  cruel 
persecutions  directed  against  their  orthodox  brethren  by  the 
agents  of  the  Arian  prince.  Regardless,  or  ignorant,  per- 
haps, of  the  peculiar  tenets  which  marked  his  creed,  this 
tyrant  viewed  mere  difference  of  opinion  as  a  proof  of  in- 
subordination, and  as  indicating  that  love  of  liberty  which, 
on  a  favourable  occasion,  might  instigate  those  who  cherished 
it  to  undermine  his  regal  power,  or  dispute  his  prerogative. 
His  severities  and  intolerance  filled  Italy  and  even  the 
Eastern  Empire  with  exiles,  who  had  no  resource  but  the 
compassion  of  the  public  ;  and,  although  there  may  be  some 
exaggeration  in  the  narratives  through  which  the  main  facts 
have  reached  our  times,  the  most  careless  reader  cannot  fail 
to  perceive  that  the  triumphs  of  Genseric  imposed  a  train 
of  frightful  calamities  on  the  finest  provinces  of  "Northern 
Africa. 

Actuated  by  the  desire  to  render  his  conquest  permanent, 
and  also,  perhaps,  to  extend  its  limits,  the  barbarian  prince 
turned  his  attention  to  the  equipment  of  a  fleet.  He  had 
acquired,  indeed,  a  rich  and-  fertile  territory  ;  but  he  was 
aware  that,  as  long  as  the  Romans  could  command  the  Medi- 
terranean, he  must  be  constantly  liable  to  a  sudden  attack, 
directed  at  pleasure  against  any  part  of  his  extensive  coast. 
His  resolution  to  create  a  naval  power,  in  every  point  of  view 
so  essential  to  his  security,  was  pursued  with  a  steady  per- 
severance. In  the  glens  of  Mount  Atlas  he  found  an  inex- 
haustible supply  of  timber  ;  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  sea- 
port-towns which  he  had  lately  reduced  were  acquainted 
with  the  art  of  shipbuilding.  Nor  was  it  long  before  a  for- 
midable armament  was  seen  to  issue  from  his  harbours,  pre- 
pared not  only  to  protect  their  own  shores,  but  even  to  carry 
terror  to  those  of  their  enemy.  Having  no  inducement  to 
seek  new  lands  or  additional  subjects  among  the  tribes  of  the 
Desert,  Genseric  saw  the  possibility  of  increasing,  his  treas- 
ures as  well  as- his  reputation  by  making  a  descent  on  Italy 
itself.  The  death  of  Valentinian,  which  paralyzed  the 
G  2 


78 


MODERN  HISTORY  OF 


Roman  government,  seemed  to  secure  for  his  attempt  the 
certainty  of  success  ;  and  accdrdingly,  after  due  preparation, 
he  boldly  wafted  an  army  of  Vandals  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Tiber.  ~  ■ 

A.  D.  455.  It  is  no  part  of  our  task  to  describe  the_sack- 
ing  of  Rome,  nor  to  examine  into  the  motives  which  led  to 
that  memorable  catastrophe.  The  pillage,  we  are  assured, 
lasted  fourteen  days  and  as  many  nights  ;  and  all  that  could 
be  found  of  public  or  private  wealth  was  eagerly  conveyed  to 
the  ships  of  Genseric.  Among  the  spoil3,-the  splendid  relics 
of  two  sanctuaries,  or  rather  of  two  re'Hgions,  exhibited  aa 
instructive  example  of  the  uncertainty  of  earthly  things. 
Though  paganism  had  been  aboHshed,  the  statues  of  the 
gods  and  heroes  were  still  respected  ;  and  the  curious  roof 
of  gilt  bronze  which  had  once  adorned  the  Capitol  was 
reserved  for  the  hands  of  this  rapacious  invader.  The  holy 
instruments  of  the  Jewish  worship — the  golden  table,  and 
the  candlestick  with  seven  branches,  originally  framed  ac- 
cording to  the  particular  instructions  of  God  himself,  had 
been  ostentatiously  displayed  to  the  Roman  people  in  the 
triumph  of  Titus.  They  were  afterward  deposited  in  the 
Temple  of  Peace  ;  and  at  the  end  of  400  years,  the  plunder 
of  Jerusalem  was  transferred  from  Rome  to  Carthage  by  the 
chief  of  a  marauding  army,  who  derived  ti^ieir  origin  from 
the  shores  of  the  Baltic* 

Genseric,  although  he  gained  an  easy  victory  over  the 
metropolis  of  the  West,  was  too  well  acquainted  with  the 
resources  which  still  remained  to  the  empire  to  attempt  a 
permanent  conquest.  He  accordingly  returned  to  Africa 
loaded  with  treasure,  and  accompanied  by  thousands  of  cap- 
tives, comprehending  some  eminent  individuals  of  both  sexes, 
whom  he  distributed  among  his  followers. 

The  success  which  had  crov/ned  the  invasion  of  Italy 
could  hardly  fail  to  induce  a  repetition  ;  and  hence,  about 
seven  years  later,  a  large  fleet  of  Jkloors  and  Vandals  ap- 
proached the  coast  of  Campania,  where  the'p rews,  encounter- 
ing Httle  resistance,  gratified  their  avarice  and  cruelty  at  the 
expense  of  the  unprotected  inhabitants.    But,  while  thus 

*  Sidonius  Panegyr.  Avit.,  p:  441,  &c.  Procop.  De  BelL 
Vandal.,  lib.  i.,  c.  4,  &c.  Victor  Vitens.  De  Persecut.  Vandal, 
lib.  i.,  c.  8. 


THE  BARBARY  STATES. 


79 


employed,  they  were  attacked  by  the  imperial  troops,  who, 
ofter  great  slaughter,  chased  them  to  their  ships — a  check 
which,  though  it  rendered  them  more  cautions  in  their  move- 
ments, did  not  deter  the  leaders  from  renewing  their  depre- 
dations on  the  least  guarded  parts  of  the  extended  shore. 

It  therefore  became  necessary,  for  the  safety  of  the  com- 
monwealth to  attack  the  pirates  in  their  own  settlements,  and 
if  possible  to  root  out  that  armed  confederacy,  which,  despi- 
sing industry  and  the  axis,  taught  the  people  to  make  a  trade 
of  war,  and  live  on  plunder.  Marjorian,  who  had  now  as- 
cended the  throne,  possessed  talents  and  spirit  equal  to  such 
an  enterprise  ;  but  he  found  not  in  the  Roman  youth  a  corre- 
sponding patriotism,  and  was  obliged  to  recruit  his  legions 
among  the  barbarians  who  had  spread  thernselves  over  Ger- 
many and  along  the  banks  of  the  Danube.  Never  was  the 
sceptre  of  Genseric  in  greater  hazard  than  when  the  emperor 
collected  in  the  Bay  of  Carthagena  a  fleet  of  more  than  300 
large  ships,  with  the  usual  proportion  -of  transports  and 
smaller  vessels,  and  was  prepared  to  throw  into  his  kingdom 
a  host  of  warriors  not  less  savage  than  those  with  whom 
they  were  about  to  engage.  But  treason  saved  the  Vandajs 
from  a  sanguinary  invasion,  and  disappointed  all  the  hopea 
of  Marjorian.  Guided  by  secret  emissaries,  the  African 
admiral  surprised  the  flotilla  as  it  lay  on  the  Spanish  coast; 
and,  setting  it  on  fire,  reduced  the  greater  part  to  ashes  and 
dispersed  the  remainder.* 

Among  the- prisoners  brought  to  Carthage  after  the  fall  of 
Rome  was  Eudoxia,  the  widow  of  Valentinian,  whose  eldest 
daughter  became  the  wife  of  Hunneric,  the  heir  of  the  Van- 
dal monarch.  This  connexion  with  the  imperial  family  con- 
veyed to  the  aged  warrior  a  claim  on  Rome,  which  seemed 
to  justify  his  incessant  inroads  upon  its  territory.  In  the 
spring  of  each  year  he  equipped  a  formidable  squadron  in  the 
most  convenient  ports,  and  conducted  his  designs  with  so 
much  secrecy,  that  no  one  on  board  knew  the  destination  of 
the  ships  until  they  had  been  some  time  at  sea.  "  Leave 
the  determinatioh  to  the  winds,"  replied  the  barbarian  to  his 
pilot,  who  asked  whither  he  should  steer ;  "  they  will  con- 
duct us  to  the  guilty  coast  whose  inhabitants  have  provoked 
the  justice  of  Heaven."    But  on  all  occasions,  Genseric, 


*  Idatius,  as  quoted  by  Gibbon,  c.  xxxvi. 


80 


MODERN  HISTORY  OF 


whose  plans  were  regulated  on  a  fixed  principle,  appeared  to 
regard  the  possession  of  wealth  as  the  most  infallible  token 
of  the  divine  displeasure  ;  for  he  never  failed  to  direct  his 
prows  against  those  devoted  shores  where  fertility  and  com- 
mercial riches  promised  the  most  abundant  pillage. 

A.  D.  468.  At  length  the  fears  or  resentment  of  the  East- 
ern Empire  gave  birth  to  the  resolution  of  delivering  Italy 
and  the  Mediterranean  from  the  grievous  scourge  to  which 
they  had  been  so  long  subjected  by  the  new  masters  of  the 
Barbary  States.  The  armament  fitted  out  by  Leo,  which 
sailed  from  Constantinople  to  Africa,  is  described  as  consist- 
ing of  more  than  1,100  vessels,  having  on  board  about  100,000 
men.  Basilicus,  to  whom  the  direction  of  the  whole  was 
confided,  gained  at  first  some  advantages  over  his  wily  ad- 
versary, which  supplied  to  the  latter  a  sufficient  apology  for 
proposing  a  negotiation  ;  while  the  imperial  lieutenant,  as  if 
he  had  resolved  to  walk  openly  into  the  snare  which  was 
spread  before  him,  suspended  his  operations  and  listened  to 
terms.  During  the  truce  which  ensued,  Genseric  had  re- 
course to  his  usual  expedient ;  he  charged  some  of  his  largest 
ships  with  combustibles,  and  sending  them,  amid  the  dark- 
ness of  night,  into  the  crowded  lines  of  the  enemy,  completed 
their  destruction,  and  thereby  put  an  end  to  the  campaign 
which  had  for  its  object  the  extinction  of  his  kingdom.  He 
again  became  undisputed  master  of  the  sea,  and  had  the  sat- 
isfaction to  terminate  his  reign  without  being  any  more  dis- 
turbed by  the  Romans,  either  of  the  East  or  the  West.* 

A.  D.  533,  The  weakness  of  the  government  in  Italy  was 
favourable  to  the  grovs'ing  power  of  the  Vandals,  who,  during 
the  lapse  of  more  than  half  a  century,  encountered  no  foe  by 
land  or  by  water  to  whom  they  were  not  superior.  But  the 
accession  of  Justinian  to  the  throne  of  the  whole  empire,  of 
which  the  undivided  authority  had  been  conveyed  to  the  city 
of  Constantine,  led  to  new  efforts  for  the  recovery  of  Africa, 
now  so  long  severed  from  the  imperial  dominions.  The  scep- 
tre of  Genseric  had  already  passed  through  his  son  Hunneric 
to  his  grandson  Hilderic,  who,  being  of  a  mild  disposition 
and  proving  unfortunate  in  war,  was  dethroned  by  Gelimer,  a 
chief  possessing  popular  qualities  and  a  high  military  reputa- 
tion.   The  emperor,  on  this  occasion,  felt  the  influence  of 


*  Procop.  de  Bell.  Vandal.,  lib.  i.,  c.  6.   Zonoras,  lib,  xiv. 


THE  BARBARY  STATES. 


81 


various  motives,  among  which  prevailed  a  feeling  of  respect 
for  the  degraded  prince  and  resentment  towards  his  oppressor  ; 
but  it  was  not  until  after  the  most  mature  deliberation,  that, 
yielding  to  the  calls  of  honour  and- policy,  he  announced  his 
determination  to  expel  the  usurper,  and  resume  the  protec- 
tion of  the  province.* 

To  accomplish,  this  object,  so  important  to  his  own  fame 
as  well  as  to  the  stability  of  the  emphre,  he  made  choice  of 
the  renowned  Belisaiius,  who  had  gained  many  laurels  in  the 
Persian  war,  from  which  he  was  just  returned.  Nor  were 
the  preparations  comruanded  by  Justinian  unworthy  of  the 
last  contest  between  Rome  and  Carthage.  Five  hundred 
transports,  navigated  by  20,000  sailors,  carried  to  the  oppo- 
site shore  of  the  Mediterranean  an  army  still  more  formida- 
able  for  its  experience  and  discipline  than  for  its  numbers. 
Landing  at  the  most  convenient  point,  though^at  a  consider- 
able distance  from  the  capital,  the  general  impressed  on  the 
minds  of  his  soldiers  the  necessity  of  cultivating  the  friend- 
ship of  the  natives,  who,  he  assured  them,  were  eager  to 
throw  off  the  yoke  of  the  ba.rbarians,  and  to  submit  to  the 
milder  dominion  of  the  Roman  emperor.  The  conduct  of 
the  people  soon  proved  the  justness  of  his  anticipations.  So 
far  from  concealing  their  persons  or  their  goods,  they  made 
haste  to  supply  with  provisions  the  camp  of  the*  invaders  ; 
and  one  town  after  another  opened -^its  gates  to  the  imperial 
commander,  who  accepteitheir  allegiance  in  the  name  of  his 
august  sovereign. 

Belisarius,  instructed  by  the  misfortunes  of  those  who,  in 
the  days  of  Genseric,  had  attempted  the  reduction  of  Africa, 
moved  cautiously  along  the  coast,  accompanied  by  his  fleet, 
from  which  he  could  at  all  times  receive  assistance  or  sup- 
plies. The  approach  of  the  Jegions  to  Carthage  filled  the 
mind  of  the  usurper  with  an.xiety  and  fear  y  having  sent  part 
of  his  army  for  the  reduction  of  Sardinia,  while  he  had  neg- 
lected to  restore  those  fortifications  by  which  the  capital  was 
at  one  time  defended,  and  which,  on  the  present  occasion, 
would  have  enabled  him  to  await  with  safety  the  concentra- 
tion of  his  scattered  forces.  His  military  estabUshment  was 
hardly  inferior  to  that  of  the  emperor  ;  as  he  could  command 
the  services  of  more  than  150,000  fighting-men.    But  he 


Procop.,  lib.  r.;  c.  9 


82 


MODERN  HISTORY  OF 


knew  that  the  deposed  king  had  still  many  friends,  who,  he 
could  not  conceal  from  himself,  were  more  likely  to  augment 
the  ranks  of  the  invader  than  to  oppose  his  progress.  He 
therefore  at  first  had  recourse  to  the  usual  expedients  for 
protracting  the  interval  which  might  precede  the  main  attack 
of  his  enemy  nor  was  it  until  he  found  that  Belisarius 
could  not  be  diverted  from  his  object  by  treaty  or  conference, 
that  he  formed  his  plan  for  a  general  engagement.  Dividing 
his  troops  into  three  portions,  he  intrusted  to  his  brother  a 
large  body  of  foot, 'and  to  his  nephew  2,000  cavalry,  placing 
himself  at  the  head  of  his  guards,  with  whom  he  hoped  to 
make  an  impression  on  the  centre  of  his  antagonists.  But 
his  skill  and  valour  proved  unequal  to  the  chances  of  war 
and  the  discipline  of  the  Romans.  Before  he  was  aware 
that  the  battle  had  begun,  the  best  of  his  soldiers  were  either 
slain  or  compelled  to  save  their  lives  by  a  tumultuous  flight. 
He  made  a  vigorous  effort  to  retrieve  the  fortune  of  the  day, 
before  he  would  consent  to  turn  his  horse's  head  towards  the 
Desert,  the  only  stronghold  to  which  he  could  retire.* 

Steady  to  his  purpose  of  revenge,  he  had  previously  given 
orders  to  take  away  the  life  of  Hilderic,  that  the  conquerors 
might  not  have  the  satisfaction  of  replacing  him  on  the 
throne — a  disappointment  which  was  amply  compensated  to 
Justinian,  by  finding  the  only  obstacle  removed  that  could 
prevent  him  from  assuming  in  his  own  person  the  sovereign- 
ty of  the  African  province.  The  surrender  of  Carthage  soon 
followed  this  decisive  victory  :  the  citizens,  eager  to  receive 
the  imperial  deputy  as  the  deliverer  of  their  country,  instant- 
ly opened  their  gates  to  his  soldiers,  and  their  harbour  to  his 
ships ;  and  his  entrance  into  the  city,  which  had  lately  trem- 
bled under  the  despotic  rule  of  Gelimer,  was  celebrated  by  a 
spkndid  festival.  So  gentle  was  the  transition  from  the 
domination  of  the  Vandals  to  the  legitimate  sway  of  the  em- 
peror, that  the  trade  of  the  port  was  not  interrupted  ;  the 
shops  continued  open  and  busy ;  and  the  military,  at  the 
close  of  day,  retired  to  their  quarters,  as  if  they  had  been  the 
wonted  garrison. 

But  the  usurper,  although  beaten,  was  not  yet  entirely 
subdued ;  for  such  was  the  nature  of  the  late  conflict,  that 
his  army  was  rather  scattered  than  cut  off ;  and  as  his  follow- 


Procop.,lib,  i.,  0.  21. 


THE  BARBARY  STATES. 


83 


ers  had  now  no  surer  resource  than  war,  they  were  not  un- 
wiUing  to  second  his  endeavours  for  the  recovery  of  his 
crown.  The  Moors,  sympathizing  in  his  misfortunes,  or  in- 
flamed with  the  love  of  pillage,  supplied  him  with  some  har- 
dy recruits.  T4Tie  Arians,  who  foresaw  in  the  success  of 
Justinian  the  rejection  of  their  creed  by  the  African  churches, 
flocked  to  his  standard  ;  and  his  brothej  Zano,  who  had  re- 
duced Sardinia,  brought  with  him  several  thousand  veterans, 
whose  former  triumphs  had  taught  them  to  despise  the  de- 
generate Romans.  Belisarius,  who  did  not  fail  to  watch  the 
progress  of  events,  was  perfectly  aware  that  the  combined 
forces  of  the  barbarian  chiefs  greatly  outnumDered  his  own  ; 
and,  consequently,  that,  in  whatever  conflict  might  ensue,  his 
sole  reliance  must  be  placed  in  the  superiority  of  his  arms 
and  discipline.  Under  this  impression  he  encouraged  the 
enemy  to  make  an  attack  in  the  night ;  trusting  that  the 
darkness  would  at  once  conceal  the  disparity  of  the  contend- 
ing bodies,  and  aid  his  plan  for  throwing  the  Vandals  into 
confusion.  The  result  answered  his  expectation,  though  the 
victory  was  not  purchased  without  great  loss  ;  the  conquer- 
ors of  Sardinia',  under  their  brave  leader,  having  repeatedly 
driven  back  the  Roman  cavalry,  and  fought  hand  to  hand 
with  the  chosen  guards  of  the  imperial  commander.  Zano 
was  found  among  the  slain  :  but  Gelimer  once  more  departed 
from  the  field,  where  he  left  behind  him  all  his  power,  and 
much  of  his  former  reputation.  He  outstripped  the  speed  of 
some  light  troops,  who  "were  sent  in  pursuit  of  him;  upon 
which,  Belisarius,  knowing  that  it  would  be  vain  to  follow 
his  rapid  retreat  into  the  fastnesses  of  Mauritania,  desisted 
from  the  attem.pt,  and  established  his  winter-quarters  at  Car- 
tbag"e.* 

The  expectations  of  the  Roman  general  were  not  disap- 
pointed 'in  regard  to  the  etfect  of  his  mild  policy  on  the  tem- 
per of  the  Vandals.  Finding  themselves  deserted  by  a  lead- 
er who  had  seduced  their  affections  from  their  lawful  prince, 
they  readily  submitted  to  the  government  of  a  sovereign  who 
appeared  to  advocate  the  claims  of  justice  and.  humani- 
ty. All  the  cities  comprehended  in  the  modern  states  of 
Tripoli,  Tunis,  and  Algiers,  acknowledged  the  authority  of 
Justinian ;  while  the  power  of  his  arms  gradually  extended 


Gibbon,  chap.  xliy. 


84 


MODERN  HISTORY  OF 


as  far  as  the  town  of  Septem,  the  Ceuta  of  European  geog- 
raphers. Africa  was  accordingly  divided  into  seven  provin- 
ces, "which  were  placed  under  the  inspection  of  a  Pretorian 
Prefect,  who,  in  his  civil  capacity,  enjoyed  the -assistance  of 
a  corresponding  number  of  consulars  and  presidents,  whose 
duty  it  was  to  administer  the  laws  of  the  empire. 

A.  D.  4)34.  The  conquest  of  Barbary  w-as  soon  completed 
by  the  sOrrender  of  Gelimer,  wjio  had  taken  refuge  in  a  for- 
-tress  situated  on  one  of  the  Atlas  mountains.  After  endu- 
ring a  siege  accompanied  "with  more  than  the  usual  priva- 
tions, the  usurper  yielded  his  person,  on  the  conditions  of 
having  "his  life  spared  and  a  provision  secured  ;  though  he 
was  afiervvrard  compelled  to  grace  the,  triumph  of  Belisarius, 
when  this  hero  entered  Constantinople  after  the  manner  of 
Roman  conquerors.  But  in  other  respects,  the  Vandal  king 
had  no  reason  to  accuse  the  generosity  of  the  emperor  ;  for 
he  was  allowed  an  ample  estate  in  the  pleasant  district  of 
Asia-  Minor,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  days  in 
comparative  affluence  and  undisturbed  repose. 

From  this  period  the  descendants  of  the  warlike  barbarians, 
who  followed  the  standard  of  Genseric  from  Spain  into  Afri- 
ca, cease  to  occupy  the  attention  of  history  as  a  separate 
people.  Justinian,  acting  upon  the  usual  maxim  of  a  victori- 
ous state,  induced  the  boldest  and  more  generous  of  the 
Vandal  youth  to  accept  service  in  his  army  ;  and  it  is  related 
that  five.squadi-ons  of  horsemen,  drawn  from  their  best  fami- 
lies, distuiguished  themselves  by  their  bravery  in  the  Persian 
wars.  The  lower  classes,  agaia,  who  soon  found  their  opin- 
ions and  habits  exposed  to  another  change  of  religion  and 
government,  mixed  imperceptibly  with  the  dominant  popula- 
tion; and  hence,  except  in  the  casual  occurrence  of  fair 
complexions  and  yellow  hair,  which  have  met  the  eyes  of  re- 
cent travellers  on  the  borders  of  the  Desert,  no  evidence  now 
remains  of  the  memorable  conquest  effected  by  German 
tribes  od  the  shores  of  Barbary. 

The  peace  which  might  be'expected  to  follow  so  many 
victories  and  the  extinction  of  a  warlike  people,  was  soon  in- 
terrupted by  the  restless  spirit  of  the  Moors,  who  thought 
themselves  entitled  to  aspire  to  the  eminence  from  which 
the  subjects  of  GeUmer  had  been  compelled  to  descend. 
During  the  decline  of  the  Vandalic  power,  these  migratory 
herdsmen  had  extended  their  rang-e  from  the  pastures  of 


THE  BARBARY  STATES. 


Mauritania  to  the  towns  on  the  seacoast,  and  in  fact  had  ta- 
ken possession  of  the  greater  part  of  that  fine  district  which 
stretches  from  the  ocean  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Algiers. 
Behsarius,  by  gratifying  the  vanity  of  their  chiefs,  had,  as 
long  as  his  arms  were  employed  against  the  Vandals,  secured 
their  neutrality  ;  but  no  sooner  did  he  set  sail  for  Constanti- 
nople, than  they  mustered  their  bands  and  proceeded  towards 
the  capital.  Solomon,  to  whom  the  command  of  the  prov- 
ince was  confided,  made  haste  to  meet  them  in  the  field  ; 
and,  although  his  troops  sustained  a  check  when  engaged 
with  the  outposts  of  the  enemy,  he  renewed  the  attack  with 
so  much  coolness  and  resolution,  that  he  cut  in  pieces  about 
60,000  of  their  number.  Pursuing  his  advantage,  he  fol- 
lowed them  into  the  heart  of  their  country,  where,  by  redu- 
cing one  of  their  strongest  posts,  he  compelled  them  to  sue 
for  terms  of  accommodation. 

A.  D.  558.  But  Africa,  meanwhile,  was  rapidly  sinking 
back  into  the  state  of  barbarism  from  which  it  had  been  raised 
by  the  Phoenicians  and  Romans  ;  and  every  step  of  intestine 
discord  was  marked  by  the  triumph  of  savage  man  over 
the  institutions  of  civilized  society.  The  Moors,  who  had 
succeeded  to  the  quarrels  of  the  Vandals  not  less  surely  than 
to  their  lands,  showed  themselves  still  more  impatient  of  the 
restraint  imposed  by  law,  and  the  o[)pressions  which  seemed 
to  attend  the  collection  of  the  revenue.  An  act  of  treachery, 
perpetrated  by  one  of  the  nephews  of  Solomon,  inflamed 
their  resentment,  and  once  more  drove  them  to  open  rebell- 
ion. A  battle  ensued,  in  which  the  prefect  was  slain,  after 
losing  the  greater  part  of  his  army  ;  though  the  victory, 
achieved  by  the  insurgents  at  an  immense  waste  of  life,  failed 
to  establish  their  power.  Many  of  their  bravest  leaders  had 
perished  in  the  conflict,  while  the  arrival  of  fresh  troops  and 
skilful  commanders  soon  secured  for  the  imperial  cause  the 
ascendency  which  for  a  moment  appeared  to  be  in  danger. 
But,  it  has  been  truly  observed,  the  successes  and  defeats  of 
Justinian  were  alike  pernicious  to  mankind  ;  and  such  was 
now  the  desolation  of  the  African  provirrces,  that  in  many 
parts  a  stranger  might  wander  whole  Jays  without  meeting 
the  face  either  of  a  friend  or  an  enemy.  The  nation  of  the 
Vandals,  as  has  just  been  noticed,  had  already  disappeared, 
though  they  once  amounted  to  600,000  individuals,  and  could 
boast  of  being  able  to  equip  for  the  field  150,000  warriora 


86 


MODERN  HISTORY  OF 


The  number  of  Moorish  families  extirpated  during  their  sev- 
eral insurrections  was  still  greater  :  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  Romans  with  their  allies  sustained,  from  the  rava- 
ges of  the  climate  and  the  fury  of  the  barbarians,  an  extent 
of  loss  not  much  inferior  to  that  which  their  antagonists  had 
to  bewail.  When  Procopius,  the  annahst  of  these  destruc- 
tive wars,  first  landed,  he  admired  the  populousness  of  the 
cities  and  country,  successfully  employed  in  the  labours  of 
commerce  and  agriculture.  In  less  than  twenty  years,  that 
busy  scene  was  converted  into  a  silent  solitude  ;  the  more 
wealthy  escaped  to  Sicily  and  Constantinople  ;  and  it  has 
been  confidently  affirmed,  that  5,000,000  of  the  natives  were 
consumed  by  disease,  famine,  and  the  sword,  during  the  reign 
of  the  Emperor  Justinian.* 

A.  D.  647.  A  state  of  inactivity,  the  effect  of  weakness 
and  disunion,  had  continued  nearly  100  years,  when  the 
mixed  inhabitants  of  Northern  Africa  were  roused,  as  if  from 
a  slumber,  by  the  Saracens  under  Abdallah,  the  lieutenant  of 
the  Caliph  Othman.  At  the  head  of  40,000  armed  men,  he 
advanced  from  Egypt  into  the  wilderness  of  Barca — a  stran- 
ger to  all  parts  of  the  vast  continent  which  stretched  out  be- 
fore him,  or  only  knowing  that  there  were  extensive  lands  to 
conquer  and  numerous  tribes  to  subdue.  After  a  fatiguing 
march,  the  privations  of  which  were  somewhat  lightened  by 
the  use  of  the  camel,  he  found  himself  in  presence  of  an  en- 
emy near  the  walls  of  Tripoli.  Preferring  the  chance  of  a 
battle  to  the  delay  of  a  siege,  the  disciple  of  iMohammed  mar- 
shalled his  troops  and  awaited  the  attack  of  the  Greeks,  who 
were  led  by  the  Prefect  Gregory.  A  conflict  of  long  dura- 
tion and  various  fortune  terminated  in  a  decisive  victory  in 
favour  of  the  invaders.  The  Grecian  general  fell  in  the  ac- 
tion ;  his  daughter,  who  fought  by  his  side,  w^as  taken  pris- 
oner ;  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  wealth  which  still  re- 
mained in  the  wasted  province  rewarded  the  valour  of  the 
Arabians.  But  such  a  victory  was  not  gained  without  a 
heavy  loss,  which,  being  still  further  aggravated  by  the  in- 
roads of  a  pestilential  disease,  Abdallah  found  it  expedient  to 
relinquish  his  conquests,  and  to  fall  back  upon  the  Nile.t 

*  Procop.  Anec,  c.  18,  quoted  by  Gibbon,  chap,  xliii.  See 
also  Procop.  De  Bell.  Vandal.,  lib.  ii.,  c.  19,  &c. 

t  Vie  de  Mahomet  par  Gagnier,  tome  iii.,  p.  45 ;  Leo  African, 
p.  685,  edit.  1632. 


THE  BARBARY  STATES. 


87 


A.  D.  680.  The  dissensions  which  distracted  the  caliphate 
secured  for  the  Barbary  States  a  period  of  doubtful  repose  ; 
during  which,  it  should  seem,  the  provincials  were  doomed 
to  suffer  as  severely  from  the  legal  exactions  of  their  Euro- 
pean governors  as  from  the  forced  tribute  of  the  Mohammedan 
princes.  Akbah,  a  brave  commander,  was  accordingly  sent 
by  the  ruler  of  the  Moslem  to  reclaim  the  ground  which 
their  arms  had  gained  ;  and,  in  this  instance,  their  progress 
was  facilitated  by  the  good  wishes  of  the  people,  whose  af- 
flictions had  rendered  them  indifferent  to  national  fame,  reli- 
gion, and  lineage.  Meeting  with  little  resistance,  he  marched 
through  Mauritania,  driving  the  natives  before  him,  till  at 
length  he  reached  the  borders  of  the  Desert  and  the  shores 
of  the  Atlantic.  He  made  himself  master  also  of  the  chief 
towns  on  the  ocean,  as  well  as  the  coast  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  had,  as  he  imagined,  completed  the  subjec- 
tion of  the  whole  country,  when  intelligence  was  conveyed  to 
him  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  eastern  districts  were  in  a 
state  of  open  revolt.  He  hastened  to  quell  the  insurrection, 
but  lost  his  life  and  army  in  the  attempt.  His  successor, 
Zobeir,  shared  the  same  fate  ;  for,  after  earning  many  laurels 
as  a  commander  of  the  faithful,  he  was  overthrown  by  a 
powerful  armament  sent  from  the  Grecian  capital.* 

The  invasion  of  Akbah  was  rendered  memorable  by  the 
foundation  of  Kairwan  or  Cairoan,  a  town  of  which  the  re- 
mains are  still  found  about  fifty  miles  south  from  Tunis,  and 
twelve  from  the  sea.  His  object  was  to  give  birth  to  an 
Arabian  colony  in  a  retired  part  of  the  province,  where  his 
countrymen  might  find  a  refuge  against  the  accidents  of  war, 
and  in  which  they  might  place  their  families  and  booty  du- 
ring the  labours  of  a  campaign.  A  wall  of  brick  surrounded 
the  rising  capital,  which  was  afterward  decorated  with  a 
governor's  palace,  a  mosque  supported  by  500  columns  of 
granite  and  marble,  and  several  schools  of  learning.! 

*  Ockley,  History  of  the  Saracens,  vol.  ii.,  p.  129.  Morgan 
has  collected  numerous  "  testimonies"  of  the  pride,  insolence, 
and  avarice  of  the  Romans,  and  ascribes  their  loss  of  Africa  to 
their  insupportable  tyranny,  p.  162.  See  also  Salvianusde  Pro- 
videntia,  lib.  iv.,  and  Procopius,  De  Bello  Gothico,  lib.  iii. 

t  Leo  African.,  p.  575.  "  Cairaoan  sive  alio  nomine  Caroen 
nobilissimum  oppidum  conditorem  habuit  Hucba — a  Mediterra- 
neo  mare  xxxvi.  a  Tuneto  verum  centum  fere  abest  milliaribus, 


88 


MODERN  HISTORY  OF 


A.  D.  698.  A  few  years  before  the  close  of  the  seventh 
century,  Hassan,  the  viceroy  of  Egypt,  was  ordered  to  attack 
Carthage,  and  subject  the  whole  of  the  surrounding  country 
to  the  religion  and  authority  of  the  caliph.  But  he  had  hardly 
reduced  the  metropolis  of  Africa,  when  a  large  force  arrived 
from  Constantinople,  which  compelled  him  to  retire  to  Kair- 
wan,  the  town  v^'hose  origin  has  just  been  described.  The 
issue  of  a  battle,  however,  again  put  the  city  of  Dido  into 
his  hands  ;  and  a  second  engagement,  which  took  place  near 
Utica,  proved  so  disastrous  to  the  Greeks,  that  they  fled  to 
their  ships,  and  finally  relinquished  the  country. 

A.  D.  699.  The  Moors  having  beheld,  not  without  secret 
satisfaction,  the  discomfiture  and  retreat  of  those  haughty 
conquerors,  resolved  to  secure  for  their  own  use  the  territory 
which  their  forefathers  had  allowed  to  be  wrested  from  their 
hands.  This  people,  who,  when  the  Roman  empire  pos- 
sessed its  early  power,  were  feeble  or  unresisting,  had  grad- 
ually become  formidable  after  the  seat  of  government  was 
transferred  to  the  East ;  and  now,  when  the  imperial  troops 
were  expelled  in  disgrace,  they  thought  themselves  sufficiently 
strong  to  oppose  with  success  the  victorious  bands  of  the  Sar- 
acens. Assembling  their  tribes  under  the  standard  of  Ca- 
hina,  whom  they  reverenced  at  once  as  a  prophetess  and  a 
sovereign,  they  attacked  the  veterans  of  Hassan  with  such 
enthusiastic  fury,  that  he  was  unable  to  keep  his  ground,  and 
at  length  had  the  mortification  of  seeing  his  old  soldiers  turn 
their  backs  before  a  horde  of  barbarians  conducted  by  a 
woman.  He  withdrew  into  Egypt,  where  he  waited  for  a 
re-enforcement,  with  which  he  still  hoped  to  recover  Africa, 
and  to  annex  it  permanently  to  the  dominions  of  the  caliph. 
Nor  was  it  long  before  the  extravagance  of  the  Moorish 
queen  enabled  him  to  realize  his  expectations.  The  Moslem 
returned  ;  gained  an  easy  victory  over  her  disorderly  and  fa- 
natical bands  ;  and,  as  she  herself  fell  in  the  first  battle,  her 
followers  made  but  a  slight  eftbrt  to  maintain  the  cause  of 
independence,  the  love  of  which  had  carried  them  into  the 
field. 

From  this  epoch,  Northern  Africa  may  be  regarded  as  a 

neque  aliam  ob  causam  conditum  fuisse  dicunt  quam  ut  in  eo 
exercitus  cum  omni  praeda  Barbans  atque  Numidis  aderapta, 
secur^  se  contenere  posseni." 


THE   BARBARY  STATES. 


89 


Moorish  Artisa.i  and  Female. 


section  of  the  great  Mohammedan  empire.  The  successor 
of  Hassan,  who  trusted  not  less  to  the  Koran  than  the  sword, 
laboured  so  successfully  to  make  proselytes  to  the  creed  of  Is- 
lamism,  that  he  had  the  satisfaction  to  see  the  people  gradually 
reconciled  to  the  divine  authority  of  the  prophet,  and  to  the 
justice  of  his  arms.  Thirty  thousand  of  the  young  men  were 
enlisted  in  his  service  ;  and  the  similarity  of  habits  between 
the  Arab  in  the  Desert  and  the  Moor  in  the  Sahara,  soon  ob- 
literated whatever  distinction  each  might  have  been  disposed 
to  maintain.  If  the  Berbers,  according  to  their  own  tradi- 
tion, originally  issued  from  that  eastern  peninsula  which  is 
washed  by  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf,  their  relation- 
ship to  their  conquerors  could  not  be  called  in  question  ;  and, 
at  all  events,  at  the  present  day,  every  shade  of  difference, 
whether  in  blood  or  religion,  has  entirely  disappeared,  except 


90 


MODERN  HISTORY  OF 


such  as  may  have  been  perpetuated  by  the  pursuits  of  active 
life.  The  shepherds,  who  still  follow  the  customs  of  their 
ancestors,  display  peculiarities  which  do  not  belong  to  the 
artisans  who  seek  a  subsistence  in  large  towns  ;  but  there  is 
not,  either  in  their  complexion  or  features,  any  characteristic 
which  may  not  be  confidently  ascribed  to  their  occupation 
and  manners.  The  foregoing  plate  represents  a  faithful  like- 
ness of  a  Moor  in  the  class  of  society  to  which  he  belongs, 
accompanied  by  a  female  in  the  costume  of  \\ex  rank  and  sex. 

During  the  ascendency  of  the  Mussulmans  in  Africa,  the 
capital  of  their  dominions  was  Kairwan,  the  city  built  by  Ak- 
bah,  where  their  viceroys  usually  had  their  abode,  and  whence 
they  extended  their  cares  to  the  government  of  the  western 
provinces  and  even  of  Spain.  At  this  period  the  Arabs  oc- 
cupied the  principal  towns  along  the  coast,  both  because 
they  might  be  called  upon  to  defend  them  against  the  fleets 
of  Constantinople  and  the  corsairs  of  the  opposite  shores, 
and  also  because  it  was  not  yet  thought  expedient  to  dispute 
with  the  Moors  the  possession  of  those  lands  between  the 
sea  and  the  Desert  which  had  descended  to  them  as  an  inher- 
itance, or  fallen  into  their  hands  as  a  conquest.  Even  these 
precautions  did  not  prevent  a  succession  of  bloody  wars, 
waged  by  the  old  inhabitants  against  the  regular  troops, 
whose  duty  it  was  to  repress  their  ravages  as  they  issued 
from  the  defiles  of  Mount  Atlas. 

A.  D.  800.  About  the  184th  year  of  the  Hegira,  the  cel- 
ebrated prince,  Haroun  al  Raschid,  the  fifth  of  the  Abbassides, 
intrusted  to  Ibrahim  ibn  Aglab  the  government  of  Africa. 
This  ambitious  captain  soon  threw  off  his  allegiance,  assumed 
the  supreme  power  in  his  own  person,  and  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  a  dynasty,  the  Beni  Aglab  or  Aglabites,  which  con- 
tinued during  eleven  successions  and  more  than  100  years. 
Rostam,  who  was  sent  to  restore  the  authority  of  the  caliph, 
so  far  forgot  his  duty  as  to  follow  the  example  of  his  prede- 
cessor, and  seized  certain  provinces,  which  he  converted  into 
an  independent  kingdom.  Nearly  at  the  same  epoch,  the 
remainder  of  the  Barbary  States,  including  the  whole  of  the 
Tingitana,  became  the  prey  of  Edris,  a  descendant  of  Ali, 
the  son-in-law  of  Mohammed  ;  and,  in  this  way,  no  part  of 
Africa,  with  the  single  exception  of  Egypt,  acknowledged 
fealty  to  the  successor  of  the  prophet.  Edris  is  venerated 
by  the  natives  of  Mauritania  as  the  founder  of  Fez — of  that 
part  of  it  at  least  which  is  now  denominated  the  Old  City. 


THE  BARBAJIY  STATES. 


91 


A.  D.  909.  The  rise  of  the  Fathnites,  in  the  person  of  Al 
Mahadi,  suppressed  for  a  time  all  the  other  dynasties  of  the 
West.  He  assumed  the  title  of  caliph,  and  governed  Africa 
with  a  rod  of  iron  ;  making  also  several  attempts  to  add 
Eg)'pt  to  his  dominions,  in  one  of  which  he  reduced  the  city 
oi  Alexandria.  His  grandson  Moez,  who  succeeded  in  con- 
quering the  rich  valley  of  the  Nile,  removed  the  seat  of  his 
government  to  Cairo,  where,  claiming  the  honours  due  to 
the  successor  of  their  great  apostle,  and  commanding  his 
name  to  be  introduced  into  the  public  prayers  of  the  mosque, 
he  inflicted  upon  his  church  the  scandal  of  a  schism. 

When  he  left  Barbary,  he  consigned  the  charge  of  the 
provincials  to  Yussuf  ibn  Zeiri,  who,  asserting  the  independ- 
ence of  that  fine  country,  gave  rise  to  a  dynasty  of  princes, 
who  figure  in  the  Spanish  histories  under  the  corrupt  appella- 
tion of  Zegris.  This  family,  there  is  reason  to  believe,  en- 
joyed royal  power  in  the  territory  of  Algiers  down  to  the 
year  1148,  when  the  last  sovereign  of  their  race  was  killed 
in  battle  by  the  forces  of  Roger,  king  of  Sicily  and  Calabria, 
who,  in  their  progress  to  the  Holy  Land,  were  induced  by  a 
feeling  of  revenge  to  debark  on  the  African  coast. 

When  Moez  was  on  the  throne  of  Egypt,  he  gave  per- 
mission to  an  immense  multitude  of  Arabs  to  pass  through 
that  country  on  their  way  to  Barbary  ;  whither  they  carried 
with  them  a  great  number  of  camels,  the  first  which  were 
naturalized  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  continent.  It  is  said 
that  no  fewer  than  50,000  warriors  accompanied  this  emigra- 
tion, who,  as  they  went  to  seek  new  lands  for  their  flocks 
and  herds,  produced  a  deep  impression  on  the  whole  province, 
and  effected  a  material  change  in  the  distribution  of  property. 
Leo  Africanus  relates  that  they  took  Tripoli,  and  put  most 
of  the  inhabitants  to  the  sword  ;  destroyed  Capes,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Tunis  ;  and  next  attacked  Kairwan,  the 
metropolis  of  the  Saracenic  princes,  in  the  sack  of  which 
they  were  guilty  of  the  greatest  inhumanities.  They  soon 
overran  all  the  plain  country,  and  penetrated  into  many  parts 
of  the  Southern  Numidia  ;  for,  like  their  countrymen  at 
home,  being  generally  mounted  on  fleet  horses,  they  evaded 
the  pursuit  of  the  Moors,  who  were  more  accustomed  to  fight 
on  foot.  It  is  from  these  families  of  Arabs,  whom  Moez 
encouraged  to  pass  the  Red  Sea,  that  the  wandering  tribes 
have  sprung,  who  still  employ  the  camel  in  the  African 


92 


MODERN  HISTORY,  ETC. 


deserts,  and  follow  the  nomade  life  at  once  as  shepherds  and 
merchants.  The  Saracens  who  followed  the  standard  of 
Akbah  count  themselves  more  noble  than  the  hordes  just 
described,  not  only  because  these  last  remained  longer  ig- 
norant of  the  orthodox  faith,  but  also  because  they  have 
stained  the  purity  of  their  descent  by  intermixture  with  foreign 
nations. 

A.  D.  1148.  It  would  be  equally  tedious  and  fruitless  to 
trace  the  history  of  the  several  dynasties  which,  during  the 
weakness  of  the  caliphate,  rose  and  disappeared  in  Barbary. 
The  Almohades  and  Almoravides  lay  claim,  perhaps,  to  some 
attention,  from  their  intercourse  with  the  Moslem  princes, 
who  at  that  period  occupied  a  large  portion  of  the  Spanish 
peninsula.  The  latter,  who  revived  for  a  time  the  spirit  of 
the  Mohammedan  creed,  found  their  efforts  crowned  with 
great  success  ;  and,  in  fact,  extended  their  conquests  into 
the  south  and  west,  which  they  were  also  able  to  retain  du- 
ring the  lapse  of  nearly  a  hundred  years. 

But  the  events  which  follow  upon  the  commencement  of 
the  thirteenth  century  will  enter  with  better  effect  into  the 
narrative  which  respects  the  Barbary  States,  taken  separ- 
ately ;  the  condition,  indeed,  in  which  they  naturally  present 
themselves  to  the  view  of  the  reader  after  the  fall  of  the 
dynasty  founded  by  Abu  Beker,  and  the  suspension  of  the 
general  government  under  the  descendants  of  the  prophet. 
To  this  part  of  our  undertaking  we  shall  return,  so  soon  as 
we  have  taken  a  brief  review  of  the  religion  and  literature 
of  Northern  Africa,  from  the  dawn  of  history  down  to  the 
date  of  its  conquest  by  the  Arabian  Mussulmans. 


RELIGION,  LITERATURE,  ETC.  93 


CHAPTER  lY. 
Religion  and  Literature  of  the  Barhary  States. 

The  Religion  and  liiterature  vary  with  the  successive  Inhab- 
itants— Superstition  of  the  Natives — Human  Sacrifices  con- 
tinued by  the  Carthaginians — Worship  of  Meicarth,  Astarte, 
and  Baal — No  sacred  Caste  or  Priesthood — Religious  Rites 
performed  by  the  Chief  Magistrates — Introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity— Accomplished  by  the  Arms  of  Rome — Dilferent  Opin- 
ions as  to  the  Dale  of  Conversion  and  the  Persons  by  whom 
it  was  effected — Statements  of  Salvian  and  Augustin — Learn- 
ing and  Eloquence  of  the  African  Clerg>',  Tertullian,  Cyprian, 
Lactantius,  and  the  Bishop  of  Hippo — Works  of  these  Divines 
— Death  of  Cyprian  and  Augustin — The  Writings  of  the  Latin 
Fathers  chiefly  valuable  as  a  Record  of  Usages,  Opinions,  and 
Discipline — Church  revived  under  Justinian — Invasion  of  the 
Moslem— Christian  Congregations  permitted  to  exist  under 
the  Mohammedan  Rulers — Conditions  of  Toleration — Afri- 
cans gradually  yield  to  the  Seducements  of  the  New  Faith, 
and  the  Gospel  is  superseded  by  the  Koran — Barbary  States 
the  only  Country  where  Christianity  has  been  totally  extin- 
guished— Attempt  made  to  restore  it  by  the  Patriarch  of  Alex- 
andria— Five  Bishops  sent  to  Kairwan — Public  Profession 
of  the  Gospel  cannot  be  traced  after  the  Twelfth  Century — 
A  few  Christians  found  at  Tunis  in  1533 — Learning  of  the 
Arabs — Great  Exertions  of  Almamoun — He  collects  Greek 
Authors,  and  causes  them  to  be  translated — He  is  imitated 
by  the  Fatimites  of  Africa — Science  cultivated  by  the  Mo- 
hammedans Five  Hundred  Years — Their  chief  Studies  were 
Mathematics,  Astronomy,  and  Chymistry — Their  Progress  in 
Chymical  Researches — Neglect  Literature,  properly  so  called 
—Prospect  of  Improvement  from  the  Settlement  of  European 
Colonies  in  Northern  Africa. 

The  religion  and  learning  of  the  Barbary  States  will  be 
found  to  vary  with  the  several  races  of  men  by  whom  they 
have  been  successivel)i  occupied  since  the  era  of  the  Phoe- 
nicians ;  the  original  i;-ihabitants  having  left  no  record  of 
their  opinions,  either  in  regard  to  the  material  world,  or  to 
those  more  lofty  objects  which  interest  the  behef  and  the 


94  RELIGION  AND  LITERATURE 


imagination.  The  ancient  Getulians,  it  is  probable,  like  their 
neighbours  of  the  Desert,  had  no  literature  ;  while,  as  to 
faith  and  worship,  they  may  be  supposed  to  have  shared  in 
that  universal  superstition  which  connects  the  veneration  of 
mankind  with  those  physical  manifestations  that  accompany 
the  periodical  production  and  decay  of  all  organized  forms. 
The  energies  of  nature,  whether  displayed  in  the  firmament 
or  in  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  associate  them- 
selves in  the  rude  mind  with  certain  emblems  which  are  con- 
ceived to  have  some  affinity  to  the  immaterial  principle 
whence  the  source  of  all  events  has  its  rise  ;  and  this  asso- 
ciation, however  arbitrary  or  remote,  confers  upon  the  mean- 
est things  a  relative  sanctity,  by  which  they  seem  to  become 
not  only  worthy  of  respect,  but  also  of  a  species  of  religious 
confidence  and  trust. 

Hence  the  origin  of  fetichism;  the  notion  that  apiece  of 
wood  or  a  polished  stone  may  be  the  seat  of  an  invisible 
power,  and  which  may  be  described  as  a  species  of  Panthe- 
ism, common  to  every  climate  at  a  particular  stage  of  civil- 
ization. Every  object  endowed  with  qualities,  fitted  either 
to  bestow  a  signal  benefit  or  to  inflict  a  serious  injury,  was 
regarded  as  the  abode  or  the  instrument  of  a  mysterious 
agent,  whose  divinity  might  be  propitiated  by  attention  or 
offended  by  neglect.  Taken  by  itself,  this  simple  belief  may 
be  viewed  as  nothing  more  than  the  parent  of  ridiculous 
usages  and  absurd  apprehensions,  being  a  stranger  to  those 
bloody  rites  which  have  been  sometimes  ingrafted  upon  it 
by  the  priests  of  a  darker  superstition,  who  demand  for  their 
gods  the  most  horrible  sacrifices. 

The  Tyrian  colonists  who  followed  their  exiled  princess  to 
Carthage,  had  been  accustomed  in  their  own  land  to  witness 
the  frightful  spectacle  of  human  bodies  laid  upon  the  altars 
of  their  demons.  The  worship  of  Moloch,  which  prevailed 
among  all  the  Aramaean  nations,  was  not  unknown  on  the 
eastern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  ;  and  in  all  parts  of  the 
world,  the  same  barbarous  immolations  were  practised  by  the 
votaries  of  this  idol,  who  condemned  to  the  fire  or  the  knife 
the  noblest  children  in  their  land.  In  times  of  peace  and 
tranquillity,  the  offspring  of  slaves  were  substituted  for  the 
heirs  of  more  distinguished  families  ;  but  when  pestilence 
or  an  unsuccessful  war  afflicted  the  state,  victims  were  se- 
lected from  the  highest  ranks,  and  consigned  to  a  cruel  death. 


OF  THE  BARBARY  STATES. 


95 


Diodonis  relates  that  the  Carthaginians,  finding  themselves 
oppressed  by  the  arms  of  Agathocles,  turned  their  thoughts 
to  the  cares  of  rehgion  ;  and  suspecting  that  undue  substi- 
tutions had  taken  place  in  the  choice  of  human  sacrifices, 
ordered  200  children  of  exalted  birth  to  be  offered  up  with- 
out delay.  Nor  was  this  held  enough  to  appease  the  anger 
of  the  god,  and  to  retrieve  the  fortunes  of  the  republic  ;  on 
which  account,  300  individuals,  whose  consciences  accused 
them  of  neglect  in  their  pious  duties,  presented  their  bodies 
also,  in  order  to  make  a  fuller  atonement  for  the  sins  of  the 
people.  On  such  occasions,  the  nearest  relative  was  not 
allowed  to  shed  a  tear,  lest  the  offering  should  be  thereby 
rendered  unacceptable.* 

The  subjects  of  Dido  appear  to  have  also  worshipped  a 
tutelar  deity,  denominated  Melcarth — King  of  the  City — 
who  exhibited  some  of  the  features  of  the  Baal,  the  sun-god, 
whom  the  Greeks  and  Romans  identified  with  their  Apollo  ; 
and  there  is  no  doubt  that  Astaroth,  or  Astarte,  the  emblem 
of  increase,  was  adored  by  the  Carthaginians  with  ceremonies 
corresponding  to  her  attributes. t  But  what  objects  or  powers 
of  nature  were  originally  represented  by  these  beings,  or 
rather  appellations,  it  is  not  of  any  consequence  to  determine. 
It  is  clear,  at  the  same  time,  that  this  religion,  if  such  it 
might  be  called,  was  patronised  by  the  commonwealth,  and 
in  fact  became  a  part  of  the  government.  There  was,  how- 
ever, no  distinct  order  of  priests  or  sacred  caste  in  Carthage, 
as  there  was  in  Egypt ;  nor  are  there  any  usages  whence  we 
might  conclude  that  sacerdotal  functions  were  hereditary  in 
certain  families,  who,  on  that  account,  were  possessed  of 
dignity  and  emolument.  But  it  is  not  less  certain  that  the 
duties  of  the  priesthood  were  discharged  by  the  highest 
persons  in  the  country,  and  had  outward  marks  of  honour 
attached  to  them  ;  so  that  some  of  the  more  important  of 
these  appointments  were  deemed  not  unworthy  the  sons  of 
their  kings.  Indeed,  the  weightiest  affairs  of  the  nation  were 
so  intimately  connected  with  religious  ceremonies,  that  it 
seems  probable  the  magistrates  were  also  invested  with  the 
chief  of  the  sacerdotal  offices,  a^d  directed  the  zeal  of  the 

*  Diodor.  Sicul.,  hb.  xx.,  c.  14. 

1 1  should  prefer  the  derivation  of  Melcarth  f\Tj<  'l'?D>  King 
of  the  Way,  meaning  the  zodiac,  or  solar  path.  ' 


96 


RELIGION  AND  LITERATURE 


people  on  all  great  occasions.  The  generals,  too,  were  au- 
thorized to  offer  sacrifice  even  during  the  time  of  battle  ; 
while  prophets  accompanied  the  armies,  without  whose  ad- 
vice the  most  popular  commander  was  not  free  to  act.  All 
the  great  enterprises,  moreover,  of  their  forces,  by  land  and 
sea,  their  treaties  with  foreign  princes,  and  their  accessions 
of  territory,  were  recorded  in  the  principal  temples.  Again, 
no  distant  settlement  was  ever  planted  without  the  addition 
of  a  sanctuary,  to  connect  the  colony  with  the  parent  state, 
whence  missions  were  occasionally  sent,  with  the  view  of 
perpetuating  the  connexion  between  the  sacred  metropolis 
and  her  affiHated  dependances.* 

Among  the  native  authors  none  stand  so  high  in  point  of 
literary  reputation  as  Juba,  the  king  of  Mauritania,  who  ap- 
pears to  have  inherited  a  large  share  of  the  knowledge  pos- 
sessed by  the  Carthaginians.  Avaihng  himself  of  the  annals 
left  by  that  enterprising  people,  he  is  understood  to  have 
written  at  some  length  on  the  civil  and  natural  history  of 
Africa  ;  but  as  his  works  are  entirely  lost,  we  can  only  judge 
of  their  merits  from  certain  references  made  to  ihem  by  Pliny, 
in  his  chapter  on  the  geography  of  the  Barbary  States. 

This  learned  Roman,  on  the  authority  of  the  Mauritanian 
prince,  attempts  to  delineate  the  courses  of  the  Niger  and 
the  Nile — an  undertaking  which,  though  unattended  with 
any  degree  of  success,  serves  at  least  to  mark  the  limits  of 
ancient  inquiry  with  regard  to  these  celebrated  rivers.  The 
naturalist,  it  is  manifest,  confounded  some  lakes  and  streams 
on  the  western  coast  of  Morocco  not  only  with  the  sources 
of  the  Joliba,  but  even  with  one  of  the  main  branches  of  the 
Egyptian  Nile  ;  thereby  leading  his  readers  to  suppose  that 
the  army  of  Cornelius  Balbus,  after  crossing  the  Great  Desert, 
had  actually  visited  the  banks  of  the  mysterious  current  whose 
outlet  into  the  Atlantic  has  been  rnce;itly  di.-^covered. 

Nor  was  the  curiosity  of  Juba  confined  to  the  African  con- 
tinent. In  his  times,  some  conjectures  had  reached  the  ears 
of  the  learned  respecting  those  islands  which  lie  scattered  in 
the  great  ocean,  at  various  distances  from  the  land  ;  and  in 
which  were  imagined  to  be  assemblvid  all  the  beauty  and 
delights  incident  to  their  happy  climate,  and  all  the  felicities 
that  ever  fall  to  the  lot  of  man  upon  earth.    Of  these  fortu- 


*  Heeren,  vol.  i.,  p.  142. 


OP  THE  BARBARY  STATES.  97 


nate  isles  he  had  ascertained  the  names  of  six,  which,  though 
they  do  not  precisely  coincide  with  those  recorded  by  Ptole- 
my and  Sebosus,  belong  unquestionably  to  the  same  group.* 

Long  prior  to  the  days  of  this  monarch,  literature  flourished 
under  the  most  favourable  auspices  on  the  eastern  section 
of  the  Barbary  coast.  As  the  Cyrenaica  was  originally  occu- 
pied by  colonies  from  Greece,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  re- 
,  mark,  that  its  towns  were  distinguished  as  seats  of  learning 
and  philosophy.  That  favoured  district  gave  birth  to  Aris- 
tippus,  the  founder  of  a  well-known  sect,  to  Callimachus, 
Eratosthenes,  Anniceris,  Carneades,  Synesius,  and  several 
other  writers,  who  hold  a  prominent  place  in  the  annals  of 
wisdom,  genius,  and  industry. 

The  doctrines  of  the  Cyrenaic  school,  originating  with 
Aristippus,  were  not  a  little  singular,  particularly  when  car- 
ried to  the  extent  to  which  they  were  pushed  by  Carneades. 
They  so  far  resembled  the  tenets  of  Epicurus  as  to  identify 
•virtue  with  happiness  ;  proceeding  on  the  ground  that  no 
action  or  sentiment  can  be  esteemed  good  which  does  not 
conduce  to  the  gratification,  or  at  least  to  the  wellbeing  of 
mankind.  The  disciple  of  Aristippus  adopted  these  notions 
in  their  fullest  import ;  and  introduced,  moreover,  those  inter- 
minable speculations  which  respect  the  basis  of  human  belief 
on  questions  of  ethics,  and  the  foundations  of  knowledge  when 
applied  even  to  physical  science.  Like  Pyrrho,  he  denied 
that  the  perception  of  external  things  is  real  or  immediate ; 
and,  of  course,  that  outward  objects  have  any  other  exist- 
ence, or  rather  can  be  proved  to  have  any  other  existence, 
than  what  they  borrow  from  the  mind  of  him  who  contem- 
plates them.  Hence  he  was  led  to  teach,  that  it  is  the  part 
of  a  truly  wise  man  to  persist  in  doubt,  and  to  secure  for 
himself  an  entire  suspension  of  the  determining  faculties. 
But,  as  these  opinions  belong  to  the  theories  of  the  Grecian 
schools,  rather  than  to  the  native  genius  of  Africa,  it  will  be 
held  sufficient  to  have  thus  briefly  alluded  to  them. 
,  The  introduction  of  the  Gospel  eflfected  a^eat  and  most 
beneficial  change  in  the  habits  of  the  people  as  well  as  in  the 
pursuits  of  th©  higher  orders^  Rome,  by  her  arms,  had  opened 

*  Plinii  Histor.  Natural.,  lib.  ▼.,  p.  66.   Juba  Ptolemaei  pater, 
primus  utrique  Mauritama^  imperavit,  studiwum  claritate 
tetfnorahilioa:  etiamqua  regno. 


98  RELIGION  AND  LITERATURE 


a  path  for  the  Christian  missionaries  into  all  the  northern 
shores  of  Africa,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Nile  to  the  vicinity 
of  Algiers  ;  and  the  blessings  of  the  new  faith  were  accord- 
ingly enjoyed  in  most  of  the  principal  cities  of  that  province, 
before  they  could  make  their  way  across  the  Alps  into  Gaul 
and  Germany.  This  happy  result  was  facilitated  by  the 
intercourse  which  the  Jews  maintained  between  Syria  and 
Asia  Minor,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  thriving  towns  of  the 
Pentapolis  and  the  Carthaginian  states,  on  the  other — a  fact 
which  is  finely  illustrated  by  a  reference  in  the  Book  of  Acts, 
where,  among  the  strangers  at  Jerusalem  who  witnessed  the 
triumph  of  Christianity  over  the  prejudices  of  education,  are 
mentioned  "  dwellers  in  Egypt,  and  in  the  parts  of  Libya 
about  Cyrene."  In  truth,  numbers  of  Hebrews  appear  to 
have  settled  in  the  Cyrenaica  long  prior  to  the  reign  of 
Augustus.  As  a  proof  of  this,  besides  the  fact  already  men- 
tioned, we  find  that  some  of  them  took  part  with  their  Alex- 
andrian brethren  in  disputing  against  the  first  martyr,  St. 
Stephen  ;  while  converted  Jews  of  Cyprus  and  Cyrene,  flee- 
ing from  the  persecution  raised  by  the  adherents  of  the  Mo- 
saic Law,  were  the  first  preachers  of  the  new  faith  to  the 
Grecians  of  Antioch.  It  has,  indeed,  been  remarked,  that 
the  inhabitants  of  this  part  of  the  empire  derived  their  knowl- 
edge of  the  true  religion  from  the  same  source  which  had 
diffused  among  them  the  language,  the  sentiments,  and  the 
manners  of  Italy.  In  these  important  circumstances,  Africa 
was  indeed  gradually  fashioned  to  the  imitation  of  the  capi- 
tal ;  and,  in  respect  to  the  reception  of  the  Gospel,  it  dis- 
played much  more  ardour  than  the  districts  which  stretch 
along  the  Rhine,  though  the  latter  were  benefited  by  a  more 
frequent  intercourse.  The  Christians  in  Barbary  soon  formed 
one  of  the  principal  sections  of  the  primitive  Church  ;  while 
the  practice  of  appointing  bishops  to  the  most  inconsiderable 
towns,  contributed  to  increase  the  importance  of  their  reli- 
gious societies. 

There  preva^s  among  ecclesiastical  historians  no  small 
discrepance  of  opinion  as  to  the  precise  period  at  which  our 
religion  was  inti^duced  into  Africa — a  difference  which  may 
perhaps  be  explained  by  suggesting  that  what  was  true  with 
respect  to  one  part  of  the  coast  might  not  be  strictly  applica- 
ble to  the  whole.  Salvian,  on  the  one  hand,  maintains  that  the 
Church  of  Carthage  was  actually  founded  by  the  Apoetlet 


OF  THE  BARBARY  STATES.  99 


themselves ;  while  Petilianus,  on  the  other,  asserts  that  the 
Africans  were  the  last  people  in  the  empire  to  receive  the 
truth.  Dorotheas  and  Nicephorus  relate  that  Simon  Zelotes 
preached  the  faith  in  Mauritania,  where  he  also  enjoyed  the 
assistance  of  St.  Peter  in  these  piou^labours  ;  adding,  that 
Epaenetus,  one  of  the  Seventy,  was  about  the  same  time  ap- 
pointed Bishop  of  Carthage.  But  Augustin,  a  much  better 
authority,  positively  declares  that  his  countrymen  received 
the  saving  doctrines  from  the  Romans,  who  sent  missionaries 
across  the  Mediterranean  to  confer  upon  their  colonists  the 
two  great  blessings  of  a  sound  belief  and  a  taste  for  learning. 
Whatever  doubts  there  may  be  as  to  the  period  when  the 
glad  tidmgs  were  first  conveyed  to  the  Barbary  shores,  there 
can  be  none  with  regard  to  their  rapid  and  extensive  promul- 
gation, wherever  the  legions  pitched  their  camp  or  could 
maintain  the  authority  of  law.  Were  we  to  estimate  the 
number  of  Christians  by  that  of  the  highest  order  of  clergy, 
we  should,  perhaps,  greatly  exceed  the  real  amount ;  and  yet 
there  appears  good  reason  to  conclude  that  a  large  portion 
of  the  inhabitants,  before  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century, 
had  ranged  themselves  under  the  banners  of  the  Cross.  Even 
after  the  slaughter  perpetrated  by  the  Vandals,  the  bishop  of 
the  capital,  whose  name  was  Reparatus,  presided  in  a  council 
in  which  were  assembled  no  fewer  than  217  prelates.  Per- 
secution had  not  materially  thinned  their  numbers  ;  for,  to 
use  the  phrase  of  an  eloquent  author,  the  more  they  were  cut 
down,  the  more  abundantly  did  they  spring  up.* 

The  African  province  was  celebrated  for  the  gi-eat  learning 
and  eloquence  of  its  divines,  long  before  Christianity  became 
the  established  religion  of  Rome.  The  names  of  TertuUian, 
Cyprian,  Lactantius,  and  Augustin,  still  reflect  honour  upon 
her  schools  ;  and  there  are  others  less  orthodox  in  their  opin- 
ions, whose  memories  will  be  preserved  in  connexion  with 
certain  theological  speculations  which  owe  to  them  either  a 
beginning  or  a  marked  degree  of  countenance.  The  first  of 
the  divines  now  mentioned,  after  studying  law,  became  a 
presbyter  at  Carthage,  and  was  highly  esteemed  as  a  writer 
of  great  genius,  as  well  as  a  complete  master  of  the  Latin 
tongue.    His  piety,  though  ardent,  did  not  escape  the  au- 

*  "  Plures  efficimur  quoties  metimur  a  vobis,  semen  est  san- 
guis Christianorum." — Tertulliani  Apologet, 


100  RELIGIOIi  AND  LITERATURE 


sterity  and  moroseness  that  began  to  cloud  the  age  to  which 
he  belonged  ;  nor  did  his  zeal  protect  him  from  the  inroads 
of  those  heresies  which  had  already  disturbed  the  behef  of 
the  East  and  the  West,  especially  the  absurd  notions  of  Mon- 
tanus. 

C3rprian,  the  renowned  bishop  of  Carthage,  had,  in  his  own 
person,  sufficient  learning  and  talent  to  distinguish  any  com- 
munity. He  was,  it  must  not  be  concealed,  characterized 
by  a  certain  severity  of  wisdom  which  frequently  created 
opposition,  and  gave  birth  to  disputes,  whence  arose  to  him- 
self, as  well  as  to  others,  much  contumely  and  suffering. 
His  works,  a  large  portion  of  which  still  remain,  place  him, 
unquestionably  at  the  head  of  the  Latin  fathers,  whether  we 
take  into  consideration  the  importance  of  his  subjects  or  the 
ability  with  which  they  are  handled.  They  breathe,  at  the 
same  time,  such  an  elevated  spirit,  that  it  is  impossible  to 
read  them  without  partaking  of  the  enthusiasm  which  must 
have  inspired  the  mind  of  the  author.  It  has,  indeed,  been 
remarked,  that  he  would  have  been  a  better  writer  had  he 
been  less  attentive  to  the  ornaments  of  rhetoric  ;  and  a  better 
bishop,  had  he  been  able  to  restrain  the  vehemence  of  his 
temper,  and  to  distinguish  with  greater  acuteness  between 
evangeUcal  truth  and  that  which  only  bore  the  semblance 
of  it. 

When  the  second  persecution  was  raised  against  the  Chris- 
tians, under  the  Emperor  Valerian,  this  prelate  was  summon- 
ed to  appear  before  the  proconsul  of  Carthage,  by  whom, 
when  he  had  refused  to  sacrifice  to  idols,  he  was  condemned 
to  be  banished.  He  was  sent  to  a  little  town,  then  called 
Curebis,  about  fifty  miles  from  the  capital,  where  he  was 
treated  with  great  kindness  by  the  natives,  and  frequently 
visited  by  the  more  faithful  adherents  of  the  Church.  Orders 
having  been  received  by  the  imperial  lieutenant  to  take  away 
his  life,  Cyprian  was  seized  by  a  band  of  soldiers  and  con- 
ducted to  the  city.  His  answers  to  the  usual  questions  re- 
specting his  faith  soon  established  the  charge  urged  against 
him  of  beUeving  in  the  Gospel ;  upon  which  Galerius  Maxi- 
mus,  who  at  that  time  exercised  the  government,  pronounced 
upon  him  the  sentence  of  death.  No  sooner  were  the  words 
uttered  than  the  martyr  exclaimed,  "  God  be  praised  !"  He 
was  then  led  to  the  place  of  execution,  where  he  suffered 
with  great  firmness  and  constancy,  sealing  with  hia  blood  tho 


OP  THE  BARBARY  STATES.  101 


truths  which  he  had  taught,  and  in  which  he  exhorted  others 
to  repose  their  confidence. 

The  writings  of  this  distinguished  martyr  are  held  in  high 
esteem,  for  this  reason,  among  others,  that  they  are  capable 
of  being  usefully  quoted  in  supporting  the  doctrines  and  dis- 
cipline of  the  Church.  His  letters  are  particularly  valuable, 
not  only  as  presenting  the  chief  incidents  of  his  life,  but  also 
as  supplying  somo  valuable  materials  for  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory. The  third  century  has  not  transmitted  to  us  any  ac- 
count which  delineates  so  clearly  the  spirit,  the  taste,  the 
discipline,  and  the  habits  of  the  great  community  of  believers. 

Lactantius,  who  for  the  elegance  of  his  style  was  called 
the  Christian  Cicero,  was  celebrated  as  a  professor  of  rheto- 
ric before  he  was  intrusted  with  the  education  of  Crispus,  a 
son  of  the  Emperor  Constantine.  His  "  Divine  Institutions" 
do  honour  to  his  zeal  as  a  member  of  the  Church,  and  entitle 
his  name  to  a  prominent  place  in  the  history  of  Africa.  A 
more  popular  treatise,  written  by  him  on  the  "  Death  of  Per- 
secutors," manifests  the  great  interest  which  he  took  in  the 
cause  of  the  Gospel,  and  also  communicates  a  variety  of  facts 
connected  with  the  biography  of  the  leading  men  of  those 
remote  ages,  ^hich  might  otherwise  have  been  lost  to  our 
€cclesiastical  records.  When  opposed  to  ivriters  who  took 
the  field  in  defence  of  paganism,  the  African  orator  never 
fails  to  gain  a  triumph ;  but,  it  must  be  added  that,  when  he 
undertook  the  office  of  an  expositor  of  Sacred  Scripture,  he 
adopted  too  freely  the  principles  which  he  had  condemned  in 
his  Gentile  antagonists. 

But  among  the  divines  whom  Africa  produced  during  the 
third  and  fourth  centuries,  none  holds  a  higher  place  than 
Augustin.  This  learned  man  was  born  at  Tagasta,  and  pur- 
sued his  studies  at  Carthage  ;  in  which  city,  both  his  morals 
and  his  theological  opinions  received  so  deep  a  taint,  that  it 
was  long  before  his  character  rose  to  the  reputation  which 
the  voice  of  the  Church  has  ever  since  conferred  upon  him. 
He  allowed  himself  in  early  life  to  become  a  convert  to  the 
doctrines  of  Manes,  which,  it  has  been  suspected  by  able 
writers,  were  afterward  ingrafted  upon  his  speculations  when 
labouring  to  systematize  the  several  books  of  the  inspired  vol- 
ume. It  is  true  that  he  openly  abjured  all  connexion  with 
the  Persian  school,  and  even  employed  his  great  talents  in 
exposing  their  principal  tenets  ;  but  it  is  manifest,  neverthe- 


102  RELIGION  AND  LITERATURE 


less,  that,  in  supporting  his  peculiar  views  on  predestination 
and  grace,  he  condescended  to  use  arguments  more  closely 
allied  to  the  sect  whom  he  had  abandoned,  than  to  the  gos- 
pels which  he  meant  to  illustrate  or  recommend.  His  zeal 
against  the  Pelagians,  with  whom  he  had  successfully  con- 
tended, carried  him  towards  those  extremes  which  character- 
ized his  conclusions  on  the  disputed  articles  of  freewill,  elec- 
tion, and  original  sin. 

Being  raised  to  the  office  of  bishop  at  Hippo  Regius,  the 
modern  Bona,  he  had  soon  an  opportunity  of  displaying  the 
steadfastness  of  his  belief  and  the  firmness  of  his  character. 
When  Genseric,  at  the  head  of  his  Vandals,  had  overrun  the 
greater  part  of  the  province,  he  met  with  a  determined  re- 
sistance at  the  episcopal  city  just  named,  which  he  therefore 
resolved  to  level  with  the  dust.  When  consulted  by  the 
Christians,  whether  they  ought  to  provide  for  their  safety  by 
flight,  or  to  await  the  onset  of  the  barbarians,  Augustin  de- 
cided in  favour  of  the  latter,  as  more  becoming  their  duty ; 
and,  when  the  place  was  actually  invested,  he  encouraged 
his  flock,  as  well  by  his  example  as  his  eloquent  discourses, 
to  defend  themselves  against  the  fierce  heretics  who  threat- 
ened at  once  their  lives  and  the  purity  of  their  faith.  Dread- 
ing, however,  that  he  himself  might  fall  into  the  hands  of  the 
exasperated  enemy,  he  is  said  to  have  prayed  that  he  might 
be  relieved  by  death  before  the  means  of  defence  should  be 
exhausted  ;  and  it  is  well  known  that  his  desires  in  this  re- 
spect were  gratified,  for  he  was  gently  removed,  in  the  third 
month  of  the  siege,  from  the  frightful  calamities  which  im- 
pended over  his  country. 

When  the  city  was  destroyed  by  the  soldiers  of  Genseric, 
the  library  of  Augustin  was  saved  from  the  flames.  In  it 
were  found  his  own  writings,  comprehending  no  fewer  than 
230  separate  treatises  on  theological  subjects,  an  exposition 
of  the  Psalms,  and  a  great  number  of  homilies.  The  learn- 
ing of  this  prelate  appears  to  have  been  confined  to  the  Latin 
language  ;  the  most  competent  critics  never  having  been 
able  to  discover  in  his  works  any  tokens  of  an  intimate  ac- 
quaintance with  Greek.  His  style,  too,  though  inspired  with 
the  eloquence  of  passion,  is  not  unfrequently  clouded  by  a 
false  and  affected  rhetoric,  the  vice  of  the  age  in  which  he 
lived,  not  less  than  of  the  country  to  which  he  owed  his 
birth.    But,  notwithstanding  these  disadvantages,  his  fame 


OF  THE  BARBARY  STATES.  103 


has  filled  the  whole  Christian  world ;  and  not  without  reason, 
as  a  variety  of  great  and  shining  quahties  were,  no  doubt, 
united  in  his  character.  A  lofty  genius,  a  zealous  pursuit 
of  truth,  an  indefatigable  application,  a  sincere  piety,  and  no 
small  skill  in  the  art  of  composition,  contributed  to  estab- 
lish his  reputation  upon  the  most  lasting  basis.  It  is,  in- 
deed, admitted,  that  the  accuracy  of  his  judgment  was  by  no 
means  in  proportion  to  the  eminent  talents  now  mentioned, 
and  that  upon  many  occasions  he  was  more  guided  by  the 
impulse  of  a  warm  imagination  than  by  the  dictates  of  wis- 
dom and  prudence.  Hence  that  ambiguity  which  appears 
in  so  many  of  his  tracts,  and  which  sometimes  renders  the 
most  attentive  reader  uncertain  with  respect  to  his  real  sen- 
timents. Hence  also  the  just  complaints  which  have  been 
made  of  the  contradictions  so  frequent  in  his  volumes,  and 
of  the  eagerness  which  he  shows  to  dilate  upon  subjects 
before  he  has  made  himself  master  of  their  diiferent  bearings. 
His  theological  dogmas,  as  is  known  to  every  one,  were 
some  centuries  afterward  adopted  by  the  powerful  mind  of 
Calvin,  who  gave  to  them  that  harmony  and  mutual  depend- 
ance  in  which  consists  their  greatest  strength. 

During  this  period  the  literature  of  the  Western  Empire 
was  still  preferred  to  that  of  the  Greeks,  who,  prior  to  the 
conquest  of  ^he  Vandals,  had  only  a  very  slight  intercourse 
with  any  p^rt  of  Africa  westward  of  the  promontory  of  Car- 
thage. For  this  reason,  the  works  of  the  Christian  Fathers, 
who«J  names  we  have  just  rehearsed,  present  little  that  is 
truJy  valuable,  either  in  the  form  of  criticism  on  the  language 
ot'  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  or  of  doctrinal  exposition.  Their 
chief  importance,  therefore,  will  be  found  to  consist  in  the 
record  they  exhibit  of  the  usages,  opinions,  and  disciphne  of 
the  Church  in  those  early  times,  when  as  yet  there  were  no 
secular  motives  to  give  a  colour  to  innovation,  or  to  withdraw 
the  minds  of  the  faithful  from  the  standard  of  behef  and 
practice  left  by  the  Apostles,  whose  authority  was  still  so 
recent. 

Science  as  yet  was  very  little  cultivated  by  the  divines  of 
Africa.  It  was  reserved  for  the  Arabs  to  transplant  into 
that  country  the  mathematical  knowledge  of  the  Grecian 
sages,  as  well  as  the  several  hypotheses  in  relation  to  the 
physical  laws  of  the  universe,  which  had  been  inherited  by 
tbe  countrymen  of  Thalea,  Parmenidea,  and  Aristotle.  The 


104  RELIGION  AND  LITERATURE 


attention  of  the  learned,  from  the  reign  of  Domitian  down 
to  the  fall  of  the  Western  Empire,  was  confined  almost  ex- 
clusively to  the  accomplishments  of  rhetoric  and  declama- 
tion ;  pursuits,  the  effects  of  which  may  still  be  traced  in  the 
debasement  of  their  style  and  the  general  corruption  of  taste. 
Poetry  and  the  fine  arts  were  neglected,  if  we  except  sculp- 
ture, the  aid  of  which  was  occasionally  required  to  complete 
the  magnificence  of  public  buildings. 

The  prosperity  and  confidence  secured  to  the  African  pro- 
vincials by  the  victories  of  Justinian  were  enjoyed  by  the 
Church,  which,  when  relieved  from  the  apprehension  of  ex- 
ternal enemies,  directed  her  cares  to  the  purification  of  her 
doctrines,  and  the  necessary  reforms  of  discipline.  No  re- 
markable event  occurs  in  her  history  till  the  rise  of  Moham- 
medanism, when  the  barbarians  of  the  Arabian  deserts  issued 
forth  to  establish  the  religion  of  their  prophet  ;  offering  to 
the  civilized  world  the  choice  of  conversion,  tribute,  or  death. 
As  the  generals  of  the  caliph  had  to  encounter  a  resolute 
opposition  on  the  part  of  the  imperial  troops,  and  made  but 
slow  progress  in  reducing  the  principal  towns,  the  Christians 
were  able  to  maintain  their  faith  long  after  the  greater  por- 
tion of  the  Barbary  States,. had  submitted  to  the  Moslem. 
We  find,  accordingly, sth?f  the  distance  of  200  years 
from  the  invasion  of  Akb»  h,  a  number  of  congregations 
continued  to  exercise  'the  rites  of  the  Gospel  in  different 
quarters  of  the  province.  Many  of  the  natives,  Moors  or 
Berbers,  had  been  admitted  by  baptism  into  the  rank  of  be- 
lievers ;  and  these,  though  they  did  not  appreciate  vety 
highly  the  doctrines  they  professed,  would  not  yield  them  at 
once  to  the  haughty  conquerors. 

The  existence  of  a  Christian  Church  in  Barbary,  so  long 
after  the  domination  of  the  Saracens  was  established,  may 
be  partly  ascribed  to  the  toleration  which  those  fanatics 
were  permitted  to  exercise  beyond  the  boundaries  of  Arabia. 
According  to  the  maxims  reoeis'ed  from  their  prophet,  the 
holy  land  which  had  been  first  favoured  with  his  revelations 
was  to  be  kept  pure  from  the  contamination  of  infidels  ;  but 
the  same  rigid  notions  did  not  extend  to  other  countries,  if 
possessed  by  a  people  who  believed  in  Moses  or  Jesus 
Christ.  All  were,  indeed,  invited  to  accept  the  more  perfect 
doctrines  of  the  son  of  Abdallah  ;  but  if  they  were  unwil- 
ling to  rpceive  the  boon,  thev  might  enjoy  freedom  of  con- 


OP  THE  BARBARY  STATES.  105 


science  and  of  religious  worship,  upon  paying  an  annual  sum 
into  the  treasury  of  Mecca  or  of  Bagdad.  It  is  probable, 
therefore,  that  the  many  thousands  of  Africans  who  swelled 
the  list  of  converts,  must  have  been  allured  rather  than  in- 
timidated to  declare  their  belief  in  the  impostor.  The  minds 
of  the  multitude  were  tempted  by  the  invisible  as  well  as 
temporal  rewards  held  forth  by  the  preachers  of  Islamism  ; 
and  in  the  revolution  which  was  thereby  produced,  every 
member  of  the  new  society  rose  to  the  natural  level  of  his 
capacity  and  courage.  At  length  the  influence  of  these 
mixed  motives  was  so  powerfully  felt,  that  the  Koran  super- 
seded the  New  Testament  along  the  whole  southern  coast 
of  the  Mediterranean — a  victory  of  darkness  over  light 
which  has  been  perpetuated  to  the  present  day. 

The  architectural  monuments  of  Christianity  on  the  Bar- 
bary  shores  are  much  fewer  than  might  have  been  expected. 
We  learn  from  the  Notitia,  that  there  were  at  one  period 
about  600  episcopal  sees  ;  though,  from  want  of  geographi- 
cal minuteness  in  the  description,  it  is  not  possible  to  de- 
termine the  situation  of  more  than  100.  It  has  also  been  a 
matter  of  surprise,  that,  while  amid  the  ruins  of  these  cities 
there  remain  many  altars  and  other  tokens  of  pagan  idolatry, 
the  relics  of  Christian  worship  should  be  so  scanty.  An 
attempt  has  been  made  to  explain  this  fact,  by  referring  to 
the  great  hatred  and  contempt  which  the  Saracens  have 
always  entertained  towards  the  Nazarenes,  and  which  have 
led  them  to  obliterate  all  traces  of  a  faith  so  little  in  ac- 
cordance with  their  own.  They  are  farther  incited  to  this 
work  of  destruction  by  the  hope  of  finding  coins,  or  pieces 
of  lead  and  iron  ;  portions  of  which  metals  were  used  in  the 
Structure  of  churches,  as  also  in  protecting  the  repositories 
of  the  dead.  But  whatever  may  have  been  the  motives  to 
which  this  rage  for  demolition  is  to  be  ascribed,  it  is  admit- 
ted by  travellers,  that  hardly  any  crosses  or  other  emblems 
of  the  Gospel  are  found  among  the  dilapidated  walls  of  the 
African  provinces.* 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  Barbary  States  are  the  only  land 
from  which  the  benefits  of  the  Gospel,  after  being  long  and 
fully  enjoyed,  have  been  totally  withdrawn.  The  arts  which 
were  planted  there  by  the  colonists  of  Phoenicia  and  Rome 


♦  Shaw's  Travels  (Edinburgh  edition,  1808),  vol,  i.,j).  27. 


106  RELIGION  AND  LITERATURE 


were  lost  during  the  dark  reign  of  ignorance  ;  and  the  doc- 
trines which  had  been  diffused  by  the  zeal  of  Cyprian  and 
Augustin  were  suppressed  by  the  fanaticism  of  barbarous 
warriors.  Five  hundred  churches,  we  are  told,  were  over- 
turned by  the  hostile  fury  of  the  Donatists,  the  Vandals,  and 
the  Moors  ;  after  which  the  energy  and  numbers  of  the 
clergy  gradually  decreased,  until  the  people,  deprived  of 
knowledge  and  hope,  sunk  submissively  under  the  Arabian 
yoke. 

About  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century,  within  fifty  years 
after  the  forces  of  the  Greek  emperors  were  expelled,  Ab- 
doulrahman,  the  governor  of  Africa,  wrote  to  the  Caliph 
Abul  Abbas,  that  the  infidels,  by  their  conversion,  had  ex- 
empted themselves  from  tribute  ;  indicating  thereby  the 
rapid  and  extensive  propagation  of  the  Mohammedan  faith. 
During  the  next  age,  an  attempt  was  made  by  the  Patriarch 
of  Alexandria  to  revive  the  dying  embers  of  Christianity. 
Five  bishops  were  sent  to  Kairwan  with  the  view  of  rallying 
the  scattered  members  of  the  Church  ;  but  as  these  mis- 
sionaries belonged  to  a  schismatical  communion,  no  record 
of  their  labours  has  been  preserved.  It  would  seem,  how- 
ever, that  the  semblance  at  least  of  episcopal  authority  was 
restored  at  Carthage  ;  for,  in  the  eleventh  century,  the  suc- 
cessor of  St.  Cyprian  is  known  to  have  implored  the  protec- 
tion of  the  Roman  pontiff,  to  shield  him  at  once  from  the 
furious  intolerance  of  the  Saracens  and  the  insubordination 
of  his  own  colleagues.  In  less  than  100  years  after  that 
incident,  the  worship  of  Christ  and  the  succession  of  the 
apostoUcal  priesthood  were  abolished  throughout  the  whole 
province  ;  or  if  any  believers  remained,  they  concealed 
themselves  under  those  compliances  with  the  prevailing 
superstition  which  were  allowed  and  adopted  on  the  princi- 
ple of  convenience.  When  Charles  the  Fifth,  in  the  year 
1533,  landed  on  the  coast,  a  few  families  of  Latin  Christians 
were  encouraged  to  avow  their  faith  both  at  Tunis  and 
Algiers.  But  the  seed  of  the  Gospel  was  soon  afterward 
entirely  eradicated  ;  and  the  extensive  province  from  Tripoli 
to  the  Atlantic  has  lost  all  memory  of  the  reUgion  and  lan- 
guage of  Rome.* 

*  Gibbon,  chapter  h.  Cardonne,  Histoire  de  I'Afrique,  tome 
iii.,  p.  168.   In  allusion  to  the  communication  mentioned  above, 


OF  THE   BARBARY  STATES.  107 


As  the  theology  of  Mohammedanism  is  not  closely  con- 
nected with  hterature,  it  is  in  vain  that  we  look  for  any 
fruits  of  professional  study  among  the  expounders  of  the 
Koran.  Their  first  efforts,  after  the  Ommiades  assumed  the 
"Western  Caliphate,  were  confined  to  the  elucidation  of  their 
sacred  books,  the  laws  enjoined  by  their  prophet,  and  to  the 
cultivation  of  poetry  ;  this  last  being  the  amusement  or  the 
labour  of  all  rude  tribes.  When,  however,  their  civil  wars 
were  brought  to  an  end,  the  Moslem,  under  the  dominion  of 
the  Abbassides,  acquired  a  taste  for  science,  especially  for 
those  branches  of  it  which  contribute  to  the  success  of  as- 
tronomy. Almamoun,  the  seventh  of  that  dynasty,  pursuing 
the  path  which  had  been  marked  out  for  him  by  his  prede- 
cessors, employed  confidential  agents  in  Armenia,  Syria,  and 
Egypt,  to  collect  the  works  of  the  Greek  philosophers, 
■which  he  also  ordered  to  be  translated  into  the  language  of 
Arabia,  and  illustrated  by  the  most  skilful  interpreters. 
Humbling  himself  so  far  as  to  become  a  pupil  to  the  nation 
whom  his  arm.s  had  subdued,  he  set  an  example  of  assiduous 
application  to  his  subjects  ;  exhorting  them  to  peruse  with 
attention  the  instructive  writings  which  he  had  procured  for 
their  learning,  and  to  make  themselves  masters  of  the  rare 
wisdom  which  had  exalted  the  countrymen  of  Plato  and 
Euclid.  "  He  was  not  ignorant,"  says  Abulpharagius,  "  that 
those  are  the  elect  of  God,  his  best  and  most  useful  servants, 
whose  lives  are  devoted  to  the  irnprovement  of  their  intel- 
lectual faculties.  The  mean  ambition  of  the  Chinese,  or  the 
Turks,  may  glory  in  the  industry  of  their  hands,  or  the  in- 
dulgence of  their  sensual  propensities  ;  though  these  dex- 
terous artists  must  view  with  hopeless  emulation  the  hexa- 
gons and  pyramids  of  a  beehive,  and  acknowledge  the  su- 
perior strength  of  lions  and  tigers.  The  teachers  of  phi- 
losophy are  the  real  luminaries  of  the  world,  which,  without 
their  aid,  would  again  sink  into  ignorance  and  barbarism."* 

The  ardour  of  Almamoun  extended  itself  to  the  Fatimites 
of  Africa,  who  now  deemed  it  an  honour  to  become  the 

this  author  rem.arks,  that,  "  II  (Abdoulrahman)  finit  sa  lettre, 
par  r^presenter  a  ce  prince  qu'il  ne  devoit  plus  s'attendre  a  rece 
voir  des  tributs  de  I'Afrique  ;  que  tous  les  peuples  avoient  em 
brasse  le  Mahometisme,  et  avoient  fait  cesser  par-lil  tous  les 
impots  auxquels  etoient  assujettis  les  infidMes." 
♦  Dynast.,  p.  160. 


108  RELIGION  AND  LITERATURE 


patrons  of  the  learned.  The  emirs  of  provinces  were  smit- 
ten with  a  similar  emulation,  and  science  met  with  an  ample 
reward  in  all  parts  of  the  Mohammedan  empire.  The  royal 
library  is  said  to  have  consisted  of  a  hundred  thousand  man- 
uscripts, elegantly  transcribed  and  splendidly  bound,  which 
were  freely  lent  to  the  students  in  the  capital,  as  well  as  at 
Kairwan  and  Alexandria.  In  every  city  the  productions  of 
Arabic  literature  were  copied  with  much  industry,  and  col- 
lected with  great  care.  The  treasures  of  Africa,  however, 
were  surpassed  by  those  of  Spain,  where  the  Ommiades  had 
formed  an  establishment  containing  siz  hundred  thousand 
volumes.  Cordova,  with  the  adjacent  towns  of  Malaga, 
Almeria,  and  Murcia,  could  boast  of  having  produced  three 
hundred  authors  ;  while,  in  the  kingdom  of  Andalusia,  there 
were,  it  is  said,  no  fewer  than  seventy  public  libraries.  Nor 
was  this  zeal  for  the  promotion  of  science  confined  to  one 
family  or  one  age.  On  the  contrary,  it  continued  to  adorn 
the  ascendency  of  the  Arabians  about  five  hundred  years, 
when  it  was  terminated  by  the  great  irruption  of  the  Mon- 
gols, who  succeeded  in  spreading  a  cloud  of  ignorance  and 
barbarism  over  a  large  portion  of  Asia  and  of  the  West. 
This  period  of  light  in  the  several  caliphates  of  Bagdad, 
Egypt,  and  Spain,  beginning  in  the  eighth  and  ending  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  coincided  with  the  darkest  and  most  in- 
active ages  of  Europe  ;  but  since  the  sun  of  knowledge 
rose  again  in  the  latter  division  of  the  globe,  the  shades  of 
intellectual  night  appear  to  have  fallen  with  increased  ob- 
scurity upon  all  the  kingdoms  of  Northern  Africa.* 

It  is  not  undeserving  of  remark,  that  some  treatises,  of 
which  the  Greek  originals  are  lost,  have  been  preserved  to  us 
through  the  medium  of  Arabic  translations.  As  mathemat- 
ics., astronomy,  and  physic,  were  the  favourite  subjects  of  in- 
vestigation among  the  learned  Mohammedans,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  there  should  have  been  found  in  their  repositories 
regular  versions  of  the  Euclid,  Apollonius,  Ptolemy,  Hippoc- 
rates, and  Galen.  In  the  department  of  metaphysics, 
also  in  that  of  the  law  of  nature  and  nations,  great  value  was 
attached  to  the  speculations  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  those 
distinguished  masters  of  reasoning  and  founders  of  the  most 

*  Abulpharag.  Dynast.,  p.  160,  (juoted  in  the  Decline  and 
Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  chap.  lit. 


OF  THE  BARBARY  STATES.  109 


celebrated  schools  in  Greece.  The  Arabians,  whose  inge- 
nious spirits  inclined  them  to  the  study  of  dialectics,  preferred 
the  philosophy  of  the  latter  ;  and  as  it  afforded  a  plausible 
instrument  for  conducting  debate,  and  more  especially  for 
methodising  the  conclusions  attained  by  argument  or  obser- 
vation, it  was  adopted  generally  in  the  seminaries  established 
by  the  Saracens.  Useless  when  applied  to  the  interpretation 
of  physical  phenomena,  it  afforded  no  aid  to  those  who  v/ished 
to  detect  the  principles  by  which  the  movements  of  the  materi- 
al universe  are  regulated  ;  and,  as  in  all  respects  it  was  better 
calculated  for  the  detection  of  error  than  for  the  investigation 
of  truth,  it  is  not  wonderful,  that  upon  the  revival  of  learning 
in  Europe,  the  natural  sciences  should  have  presented  them- 
selves in  nearly  the  same  imperfect  state  in  which  they  had 
been  left,  many  centuries  before,  by  the  sages  of  Athens. 

The  climate  of  Africa,  as  well  as  the  habits  of  the  orien- 
tal people  who  now  inhabited  the  upper  coast,  encouraged 
the  pursuits  of  practical  astronomy — a  species  of  knowledge 
which  was  supposed  to  confer  upon  the  adepts  in  its  pro- 
founder  mysteries  an  acquaintance  with  the  destiny  of  indi- 
viduals and  of  nations.  The  most  costly  apparatus  was  sup- 
phed  by  the  Caliph  Almamoun,  and  he  had  the  satisfaction 
to  find  that  his  mathematicians  were  able  to  measure  a  degree 
of  the  great  circle  of  the  earth,  and  to  determine  its  entire 
circumference  at  twenty-four  thousand  miles.  But  it  was  in 
chymistry  that  the  Saracens  made  the  greatest  advances, 
and  contributed  most  to  the  progress  of  modern  science. 
They  first  invented  and  named  the  alembic  for  the  purposes 
of  distillation  ;  analyzed  the  substances  of  the  three  king- 
doms of  nature  ;  proved  the  distinction  and  the  affinities  of 
acids  and  alkalis  ;  and  converted  the  poisonous  minerals  into 
salutary  medicines.  It  is  true,  no  doubt,  that  the  object  of 
their  most  eager  research  was  the  tiansmutation  of  metals, 
and  the  elixir  of  immortal  health  ;  and  that  their  secret  pro- 
cesses were  aided  by  all  the  powers  of  mystery,  fraud,  and 
superstition.  But  it  is  equally  certain,  that  the  results  of  their 
numerous  experiments  tended  to  widen  the  boundaries  of 
real  knowledge  ;*  to  suggest  better  methods  of  manipulation  ; 

*  In  the  library  of  Cairo,  the  manuscripts  of  medicine  and 
astronomy  amounted  to  6,500,  with  two  fair  globes,  the  one  of 
brass,  the  other  of  silver. — Bibliotheca  Arabico-Hispana,  torn,  i., 
p.  417.    See  Gibbon,  chap,  lii. 


110 


RELIGION  AND  LITERATURE 


and  finally,  to  open  a  path  into  those  spacious  fields  where 
man  has  reaped  the  most  abundant  fruits  of  ingenuity  and  per- 
severance. 

•  It  must  be  acknowledged,  that  the  protracted  domination 
of  the  Turks  in  Africa,  and  the  destruction  of  the  capital  so 
long  occupied  by  the  Commanders  of  the  Faithful,  have  oc- 
casioned the  disappearance  of  the  greater  part  of  those  mon- 
uments by  which  the  scientific  triumphs  of  the  Arabs  are  else- 
where perpetuated.  The  catalogue  of  the  Escurial  still  bears 
testimony  to  the  extent  of  their  labours,  both  as  commenta- 
tors and  translators  ;  while  lists  of  works,  edited  or  composed 
by  the  scholars  of  Bagdad,  prove  that  the  court  of  the  Ab- 
bassides  was  not  less  auspicious  to  the  enterprises  of  literary 
zeal.  But  of  the  distinction  which  belonged  to  Kairwan  in 
this  respect,  no  traces  now  remain  in  the  savage  country  of 
which  it  was  once  the  ornament  and  the  defence.  The  fame  of 
that  city,  at  one  time  filled  with  palaces  and  schools,  is  only  to 
be  heard  in  the  form  of  an  echo  from  contemporaneous  writers, 
who  flourished  in  Spain  or  Italy  ;  and  is,  in  our  days,  faintly 
resounded  in  the  compilations  of  Abulpharagius,  Renaudot, 
Fabricius,  Asseman,  Casiri,  and  the  learned  D'Herbelot. 

The  preference  shown  by  the  African  Mussulmans  to  sci- 
ence, when  compared  to  the  lighter  and  more  elegant  studies 
of  poetry,  kept  them  ignorant  of  Grecian  literature,  even 
while  they  occupied  the  provinces  where  it  had  attained  its 
highest  eminence.  The  Arabians,  in  fact,  disdained  to  use 
any  other  language  than  their  own,  the  beauty  and  copious- 
ness of  which  they  never  ceased  to  extol.  Finding  among 
their  Christian  subjects  persons  whom  they  could  employ  to 
form  translations,  they  selected  the  most  distinguished  names 
in  medicine  and  astronomy  ;  but  it  has  been  remarked,  that 
even  in  those  seats  of  learning  where  the  Arabic  manuscripts 
are  most  numerous,  there  has  not  been  discovered  the  ver- 
sion of  a  poet,  an  orator,  or  an  historian.  They  were  con- 
tent that  the  annals  of  the  world,  prior  to  the  era  of  their 
prophet,  should  be  reduced  to  a  short  legend  of  the  Jewish 
patriarchs  and  the  Persian  kings.  The  Greeks,  on  their  part, 
actuated  by  a  foolish  vanity,  were  little  disposed  to  commu- 
nicate to  their  conquerors  those  graces  of  style  and  diction 
by  which  their  own  compositions  were  recommended  to  the 
finest  taste.  Hence  the  Mohammedans,  even  after  their  long 
residence  in  the  Grecian  colonies  and  Roman  cities  on  both 


OF  THE   BARBARY  STATES. 


Ill 


sides  of  the  Mediterranean,  never  manifested  in  their  writings 
a  simple  dignity  of  manner,  a  just  appreciation  of  visible  or 
intellectual  beauty,  a  chaste  delineation  of  character  and  pas- 
sion, or  an  accurate  conception  of  dramatic  propriety,  even 
in  their  most  splendid  fictions. 

The  fifteenth  century  closes  our  researches  into  the  reli- 
gion and  literature  of  the  ancient  Barbary  States  ;  because 
at  that  period  the  dynasties  which  had  hitherto  connected 
them  with  the  language  and  habits  of  Western  Asia,  gave 
way  to  a  ruder  sovereignty,  emerging  from  the  remote  re- 
gions of  the  North.  The  domination  of  the  Turks  has  not 
yet  been  alleviated  by  the  enjoyment  of  learned  ease,  nor  en- 
nobled by  the  pursuits  of  science.  A  brighter  era  has,  per- 
haps, begun  to  dawn  on  those  desolate  tracts  ;  and  were  the 
example  recently  given  by  France  cautiously  but  resolutely 
followed  by  other  European  powers,  and  colonies  established 
along  the  whole  line  of  coast,  civihzation,  so  long  banished, 
might  yet  be  restored  ;  Christianity  would  again  resume  her 
mild  sway  over  the  consciences  and  morals  of  the  inhabitants  ; 
and  learning,  accompanied  by  the  arts,  would  once  more  shed 
her  blessings  on  the  land  where  Cyprian  preached  and  Ter- 
tuUian  wrote. 

It  is  not,  however,  to  be  concluded,  that  the  Moors  and 
Arabs  are  entirely  indifferent  to  the  education  of  their  chil- 
dren, or  to  the  respect  which  always  attends  the  possession 
of  knowledge.  Philosophy,  mathematics,  and  medicine,  which 
a  few  centuries  ago  were  their  pecuhar  inheritance,  are,  it  is 
true,  very  httle  studied  among  them.  Their  wandering  hfe, 
and  the  oppression  of  the  Turkish  government,  do  not  per- 
mit the  enjoyment  of  that  quiet,  freedom,  and  security,  with- 
out which  the  pursuit  of  letters  cannot  be  attended  with  suc- 
cess. At  the  age  of  six,  boys  are  sent  to  school,  where  they 
learn  to  read,  to  write,,  and  repeat  their  lessons  at  the  same 
time.  They  make  no  use  of  paper ;  but,  instead  of  it,  each 
pupil  has  a  thin  smooth  board,  slightly  daubed  over  with  whi- 
ting, or  fine  sand,  which  may  be  wiped  off  and  renewed  at 
pleasure. 

After  they  have  made  some  progress  in  the  Koran,  which 
is  the  principal  book  used  in  their  seminaries,  they  are  initi- 
ated in  the  several  ceremonies  of  their  religion.  These  ac- 
quirements, which  may  be  attained  by  all,  are  seldom  ex- 
ceeded by  any,  even  by  those  who  devote  their  lives  to  con- 


112 


RELIGION  AND  LITERATURE 


Coffee-house  and  School  at  Byrmadrais. 

templation.  The  erudition  of  the  Mussulmans  is  confined  to 
some  enthusiastic  commentaries  upon  the  sacred  text,  the 
outhnes  of  a  very  inaccurate  geography,  and  memoirs  of  re- 
cent times  ;  for  such  histories  as  are  older  than  their  own  era 
present  nothing  but  a  compound  of  distorted  facts  and  extrav- 
agant romance. 

Of  navigation,  a  practical  acquaintance  with  which  seems 
so  essential  to  their  prosperity  as  pirates  and  merchants,  they 
scarcely  know  the  simplest  elements.  Their  proficiency  is 
limited  to  the  rude  art  of  what  is  called  pricking  a  chart,  and 
distinguishina  the  eight  principal  points  of  the  compass. 
When  Dr.  Shaw  was  in  the  country,  the  chief  astronomer, 
whose  duty  it  was  to  regulate  the  hours  of  prayer,  had  not 
trigonometry  enough  to  project  a  sun-dial.  Chymistry,  once 
their  favourite  study,  is  now  confined  to  the  distillation  of 
rose-water.    The  names  of  Avicerma  and  Averroes  are  hard- 


OF  THE  BARBARY  STATES. 


113 


ly  known.  The  quadrants,  astrolabes,  and  other  instruments 
left  by  their  ancestors,  are  looked  upon  rather  as  curiosities 
than  prized  as  useful  inventions.  Algebra  and  arithmetic, 
which  owe  so  much  of  their  advancement  to  the  ancient 
Arabs,  are  not  familiar,  even  in  their  most  elementary  form,  to 
one  person  in  a  thousand  among  their  descendants.  The  la- 
bours of  Diophantus  and  of  Albugiani  are  lost  or  neglected ; 
and  the  progeny  of  the  brave  and  accomplished  Saracens 
seem  not  aware  of  the  obligations  under  which  Europe  stands 
to  them  for  having  preserved  the  fruits  of  Egyptian  art  and 
Grecian  philosophy. 

In  such  unfavourable  circumstances,  it  cannot  be  expected 
that  any  branch  of  practical  knowledge  should  be  properly 
studied.  There  are  not,  indeed,  wanting  many  persons  who 
prescribe  in  physic,  perform  upon  a  variety  of  musical  instru- 
ments, and  engage  in  other  professions  which  seem  to  imply 
some  acquaintance  with  the  mathematical  and  chymical  sci- 
ences. Yet,  we  are  assured,  such  attainments  have  no  foun- 
dation in  principle,  but  are  entirely  the  result  of  practice,  aid- 
ed by  great  quickness  of  thought  and  vigour  of  memory.  The 
abilities  of  the  people  are  allowed  to  be  considerable  ;  their 
ingenuity  and  perseverance  are  equal  to  the  most  arduous 
undertakings  ;  and  the  philanthropist  has  not  to  deplore  the 
absence  of  any  thing  except  a  regular  encouragement  to  in- 
dustry. 

K  2 


114      THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS. 


CHAPTER  V. 

The  Cyrenaica  and  Pentapolis. 

Modem  Acceptation  of  the  Term  Barbary — Desert  of  Barca — 
District  of  Marmarica— Its  desolate  State — Remains  of  an- 
cient Improvement — Derna — Natural  Advantages — Habits  of 
the  People — Want  of  good  Harbours— Ruins — Opinion  of  Pa- 
cho — Excavations  and  Grottoes— Cyrene— Details  by  Herodo- 
tus— War  with  Egypt— Successes  of  the  Persians — Form  of 
Government — Cyrene  subject  to  Egypt — Persians — Saracens 
— Present  State  of  the  Cyrenaica — Marsa  Suza — Ruins — Ap- 
ollonia  —  Monuments  of  Christianity — Tombs  —  Theatres — 
Style  of  Architecture — Amphitheatre — Temples — Stadium — 
Hypogea — Notion  of  petrified  Village — Account  by  Shaw — 
Remark  by  Delia  Cella — Journey  of  Captain  Smyth — State  of 
Ghirza — Fountain  of  Apollo — Description  of  it — Examined  by 
Capt.  Beechey — Plain  of  Merge — Barca — History  of — Doubts 
as  to  its  real  Position— Opinion  of  Delia  Cella — Ptolemeta  or 
Dolmeita — Fine  Situation  of  the  Town — Streets  covered  with 
Grass  and  Shrubs — Extent  of  the  City — Ruins — Theatres — 
Magnificent  Gateway — Supposed  of  Egyptian  Origin — Hy- 
pothesis of  Delia  Cella — Disputed  by  Capt.  Beechey — Taucra, 
or  ancient  Teuchira — Unfavourable  as  a  Seaport — Complete 
Demolition  of  its  Buildings — Ruins  of  two  Christian  Church- 
es— Tombs — Variety  of  Greek  Inscriptions — Mode  of  Burial 
— Bengazi,  or  Berenice — Miserable  Condition  of  the  Place — 
Plague  of  Flies — Population — Character  of  Inhabitants — Gar- 
dens of  the  Hesperides — Glowing  Descriptions  of  ihem  by  an- 
cient Writers— Position  indicated  by  Scylax — Labours  of  Cap- 
tain Beechey — Conclusion, 

It  has  been  already  stated  that  Barbarv,  according  to  the 
modern  acceptation  of  the  term,  may  be  viewed  as  compre- 
hending four  great  pachaliks  or  governments  ;  all  of  which 
profess  to  own  a  subjection,  more  or  less  restricted,  to  the 
supreme  authority  of  the  Grand  Turk.  In  describing  these 
extensive  provinces,  which  stretch  from  the  borders  of  Egypt 
to  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic,  we  shall  at  first  proceed  from 
east  to  west ;  having  in  some  degree  prepared  for  this  ar- 
rangement by  laying  before  our  readers,  in  a  former  volume, 


THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS.  115 


ril  the  facts  which  recent  enterprise  has  brought  to  hght,  re- 
garding that  perilous  desert  which,  commencing  at  the  left 
bank  of  the  Nile,  touches  the  sea  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  greater  Syrtis.  The  discoveries  of  Brown,  Pacho,  and 
others,  who  in  later  times  have  penetrated  this  dreary  wil- 
derness, have  rendered  familiar  to  the  student  of  geography 
every  thing  that  can  be  deemed  interesting  relative  to  Siwah, 
the  seat  of  the  ancient  Ammonium,  and  those  smaller  oases 
by  which  the  surface  of  the  surrounding  waste  is  relieved 
and  diversified. 

Moving  along  the  coast  westward  from  Alexandria,  the 
traveller,  upon  reaching  the  28th  degree  of  longitude,  finds 
himself  in  the  district  of  Marmarica,  where  the  classical  port 
of  Paraetonium  may  still  be  recognised  under  the  modern  ap- 
pellation of  Al  Bereton.  This  wild  country  is  not  recom- 
mended to  the  European  eye  either  by  its  natural  beauties  or 
its  historical  remains.  The  soil,  of  a  parched  and  barren 
aspect,  refuses  nourishment  to  those  groves  of  laurel,  myr- 
tle, juniper,  and  arbutus,  which  in  other  parts  adorn  the 
northern  edge  of  the  Desert,  and  present  an  air  of  freshness 
to  the  mariner  who  approaches  the  shore.  Traces  are  not 
wanting,  indeed,  of  happier  times,  when  a  race  of  men  pos- 
sessing industry  and  taste  must  have  occupied  its  surface. 
Canals,  constructed  for  the  purpose  of  irrigation,  cross  the 
plain  in  various  directions,  even  ascending  the  sides  nf  the 
hills  ;  and  cisterns  meant  to  retain  the  excess  of  moisture 
supplied  by  the  rainy  season,  are  still  found  in  such  a  state 
of  preservation  as  to  indicate  the  plan  on  which  they  were 
built,  and  the  materials  of  which  they  consisted. 

It  admits  not  of  doubt,  that,  when  the  Cyrenaica  was  sub- 
ject to  the  King  of  Egypt,  this  province  must  have  enjoyed 
a  considerable  share  of  wealth  and  importance.  The  la- 
bours bestowed  on  agriculture  prove  at  once  the  extent  of 
the  population  and  the  value  attached  to  the  produce  of 
land  ;  and  even  at  the  present  day  there  are  everywhere 
vestiges  of  ancient  habitations,  which,  though  they  serve 
only  to  throw  an  additional  gloom  over  regions  condemned 
to  desertion  and  melancholy,  afford  the  best  evidence  that 
they  were  at  one  time  blessed  with  at  least  a  partial  civili- 
zation, and  with  such  improvement  as  belonged  to  the  parent 
state. 

The  Gulf  of  Bomba  presents  itself  as  a  principal  feature 


116      THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS. 


in  this  scene,  in  which  geographers  are  willing  to  recognise 
the  harbour  of  Menelaus,  mentioned  by  Herodotus,  Strabo, 
and  Ptolemy.  No  positive  traces,  it  is  true,  can  be  dis- 
covered of  the  power  or  taste  of  the  Cyrenians,  though  it  is 
certain  that  their  dominion  extended  so  far  to  the  eastward. 
The  Bedouins,  moreover,  unite  in  declaring  that,  at  a  httle 
distance  from  the  bottom  of  the  bay,  there  is  a  lake  with  a 
small  island  in  the  centre,  covered  with  architectural  relics 
of  a  superior  order.  The  statements  of  such  guides,  how- 
ever, are  for  the  most  part  unworthy  of  trust,  not  only  from 
ignorance,  but  also  from  that  habit  of  exaggeration  to  which 
all  rude  tribes  are  addicted.  The  specimens,  accordingly, 
which  fell  under  the  notice  of  M.  Pacho,  were  executed  in 
the  Egyptian  style,  with  very  little  regard  to  elegance,  and 
bearing  no  marks  of  that  refined  genius  which  characterized 
the  buildings  of  the  Grecian  colonists  in  the  Pentapolis. 

The  frontiers  of  Tripoli  and  Egypt  are,  as  might  be  ex- 
pected, extremely  unsettled,  being  beyond  the  reach  of  either 
government,  and  affording  a  retreat  to  the  thieves,  the  oat- 
laws,  and  malecontents  of  both.  Pitching  their  tents  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  gulf,  they  make  incursions  into  the  ad- 
joining districts,  and  plunder  every  one  who  has  the  misfor- 
tune to  fall  in  their  way.  They  are  ever  on  the  watch  for 
the  caravans  and  pilgrims  who  traverse  the  Desert  on  their 
journey  to  Mecca  ;  and  this  is  the  only  route  used  by  the 
people  of  Morocco,  who  are  said  of  all  Moslem  to  be  the 
most  fervently  devoted  to  the  prophet.  It  might  seem,  in- 
deed, that  the  equipage  of  a  penitent  would  not  hold  out  any 
temptation  to  these  rapacious  freebooters  ;  for,  wrapped  up 
in  a  tattered  cloak,  without  shoes  or  head-dress,  and  carrying 
no  provisions  besides  a  bag  of  barley  meal,  he  might  appear 
rather  an  object  of  compassion  than  of  plunder,  even  in  the 
eyes  of  an  Arab.  But  it  is  well  known  that  under  this  sem- 
blance of  extreme  poverty  the  hajjis  often  conceal  a  quantity 
of  gold-dust,  which,  being  brought  from  the  interior  of  Africa 
to  Fez,  is  thence  conveyed  as  an  article  of  commerce  to  the 
holy  city.  The  hope  of  seizing  this  valuable  booty  subjects 
every  traveller  to  the  misery  of  being  stripped  and  narrowly 
examined  ;  and  it  is  related,  that  a  few  years  ago  an  uncle 
of  the  Moorish  emperor,  though  escorted  by  3,000  men,  was 
assailed  by  this  horde  of  marauders  and  pillaged  of  all  his 
tieasures. 


THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS.       1  17 


The  face  of  the  country,  from  the  gulf  just  described  to 
Derna,  is  very  uneven,  rocky,  and  unproductive,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  some  glens  or  recesses  in  the  hilly  parts,  which 
are  covered  with  beautiful  evergreens.  The  territory  be- 
longing to  the  latter  place  consists  of  a  narrow  plain  of  most 
fertile  land,  situated  upon  a  small  bay,  and  girdled  on  the 
south  by  a  range  of  hills  which  at  either  extremity  dip  into 
the  sea.  Within  this  enclosure  flourish  great  numbers  of 
palm-trees,  whose  rough  tops  are  seen  spreading  over  the 
softer  forms  of  the  vine,  the  pomegranate,  the  fig,  ohve,  and 
apricot. 

In  the  centre  of  the  plain,  and  surrounded  by  gardens  full 
of  orange  and  lemon-trees,  the  exterior  of  the  town  is  seen 
to  great  advantage  ;  but  though  its  streets  are  more  than 
usually  regular,  the  houses  are  very  low  and  small ;  and, 
being  built  only  of  pebbles  cemented  with  clay,  appear  very 
uncomfortable.  Their  dwellings,  indeed,  exhibit  the  most 
painful  evidence  of  the  ignorance  and  idleness  of  the  people  ; 
for  the  adjacent  hills  abound  with  excellent  limestone,  as 
well  as  with  timber  of  the  most  suitable  description  for  do- 
mestic architecture.  Two  abundant  springs  of  pure  water 
issue  from  the  rocks  which  overhang  the  town  ;  one  of  which, 
collected  in  an  aqueduct,  supplies  the  inhabitants,  and  serves 
to  irrigate  the  contiguous  fields  ;  while  the  other  is  conveyed 
to  Demensura,  a  village  about  a  mile  distant.  This  copious 
moisture  applied  to  the  surface,  combined  with  that  which 
filters  from  the  rocks  through  the  subsoil,  gives  rise,  in  the 
glowing  climate  of  Africa,  to  a  strength  of  vegetation  of 
which  Europe  can  present  no  e.x:ample. 

Derna,  we  are  told,  contains  all  the  elements  of  an  abun- 
dant subsistence  for  a  large  population.  Excellent  meat  and 
milk  are  brought  thither  by  the  Arabs,  who  feed  their  flocks 
on  the  neighbouring  hills  ;  the  valley  is  admirably  fitted  to 
bear  all  kinds  of  corn ;  the  most  exquisite  fruits  abound 
throughout  the  winter  ;  and  the  natives  have  it  in  their  power 
to  carry  on  a  lucrative  trade  in  the  honey  which  is  produced 
in  great  quantities  by  the  prodigious  swarms  of  bees  that 
multiply  on  the  rocky  heights.  But  these  sources  of  pros- 
perity are  dried  up  by  the  withering  influence  of  a  despotic 
government.  The  laws  afford  no  protection  ;  and  confi- 
dence between  the  sovereign  and  the  people  has  entirely  dis- 
appeared.   Besides,  the  more  peaceful  residents  are  never 


118      THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PEXTAPOLIS. 


safe  from  the  incursions  of  the  Bedouins,  who  frequently 
enter  the  town  in  armed  bands,  and  indulge  in  the  most 
savage  plunder.  Fatalism,  too,  that  offspring  of  Mohamme- 
dan superstition,  continually  exposes  the  occupants  of  the 
town  to  the  ravages  of  the  plague,  which  is  conveyed  to  them 
through  their  intercourse  with  Egypt.  A  few  years  ago, 
that  destructive  disease  raged  so  fiercely,  that  the  number 
of  its  inhabitants  was  reduced  from  5,000  to  700. 

The  natural  advantages  belonging  to  this  district,  which, 
in  the  hands  of  a  civilized  people,  might  be  converted  into 
the  means  of  distinguished  wealth  and  power,  are,  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  neutralized  by  the  want  of  good  harbours.  This 
defect  has  been  considered  as  the  principal  reason  why  no 
foreign  nation,  desirous  of  having  a  permanent  footing  in 
that  section  of  the  Mediterranean,  has  attempted  to  estab- 
lish itself  at  Derna.  The  bay,  it  is  clear,  oflers,  no  secure 
asylum  for  shipping,  while  the  anchorage-ground  is  described 
as  being  intersected  by  sharp  calcareous  strata,  which  would 
soon  tear  in  pieces  the  strongest  cables.* 

A  ravine  which  stretches  back  from  the  town  into  the 
mountains  is  of  considerable  extent,  having  on  its  sides  some 
picturesque  gardens  adorned  with  trees.  In  the  rainy  season 
a  large  body  of  water  rushes  down  into  the  sea,  and  is  some- 
times so  deep  and  rapid  as  to  become  wholly  impassable, 
separating  one  half  of  the  houses  from  the  other.  On  the 
eastern  bank  is  the  principal  burying-ground  of  the  place,  dis- 
tinguished in  particular  by  a  lofty  tomb,  raised  on  four  arches, 
under  which  the  body  is  laid,  with  its  usual  covering  of  snow- 
white  cement,  and  a  carved  turban  at  the  head.    Above  the 

*  Mr.  Blaquiere  remarks,  that  "  the  bay  is  exposed  to  east- 
erly and  northerly  winds,  but  has  excellent  anchorage,  and  ships 
of  any  class  may  approach  near  the  shore,  it  being  very  bold. 
It  is  important  to  observe,  that  vessels  passing  by  Derna  may 
obtain  supplies  of  water  and  fresh  provisions  at  a  very  trifling 
expense;  and  Lord  Keith's  fleet  received  supplies  from  this 
place  during  the  memorable  campaign  of  Eg}  pt.  The  French 
government,  aware  of  the  importance  of  Derna,  sent  Gan- 
theaume  with  his  squadron  and  a  body  of  troops  there  in  1799, 
to  disembark  them  for  the  purpose,  as  he  informed  the  governor, 
of  re-enforcing  the  armvjof  Bonaparte  in  Eg>-})t ;  but  his  re- 
quest  was  not  acceded  to,  owing  to  the  jealousy  of  the  pacha, 
and  the  French  adrmral  did  not  think  it  prudent  to  force  a  land* 
irig."— Letters  from  the  Mediterranean,  vol.  ii.,  p.  6. 


THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS. 


119 


town  a  few  sepulchres  may  be  observed,  though  in  a  very 
decayed  condition,  which  must  have  been  originally  exca- 
vated out  of  the  solid  rock.  Fragments  of  columns,  and 
some  large  stones,  evidently  prepared  for  more  stately  build- 
ings than  the  walls  of  Arab  houses,  indicate  that  Derna  once 
accommodated  a  people  to  whom  the  arts  and  comforts  of 
life  were  not  altogether  unknown. 

A  French  author,  whose  name  has  been  already  mentioned, 
is  of  opinion  that  the  proper  city  has  entirely  disappeared, 
and  that  its  place  is  supplied  by  five  villages  ;  two  of  which, 
Eljebeli  and  Mansour,  are  erected  either  immediately  over, 
or  closely  adjoining  to,  ancient  sepulchral  grottoes.  This  de- 
parture from  the  custom  of  the  Moslem  has  been  justified 
by  necessity,  or  at  least  by  the  great  usefulness  of  such  ex- 
cavations in  so  rainy  a  country  ;  and  hence,  without  perplex- 
ing themselves  with  any  inquiries  as  to- the  primary  use  of 
these  vaults,  they  have  converted  them  into  workshops  and 
receptacles  for  grain.  The  inhabitants  construct  their  houses 
in  such  a  manner  that  these  caves  are  included  in  their 
yard  or  court.  Viewed  as  objects  of  art,  they  present 
nothing  remarkable,  being  equally  devoid  of  inscriptions  and 
of  every  other  species  of  ornament.  The  workmanship,  in 
short,  is  very  rude.  The  grottoes  of  the  latter  village  are 
hewn  in  the  sides  of  the  mountain,  the  rocky  surface  of 
which  is  sometimes  bare,  and  sometimes  covered  with  ver- 
dure. The  largest  has  been  converted  into  manufactories, 
containing  one  or  more  looms,  perfectly  resembling  those  still 
used  in  the  hamlets  of  the  south  of  France. 

In  the  neighbourhood  there  are  other  excavations  of  a  sim- 
ilar description.  Some  at  a  little  distance  eastward  from  the 
city  are  called  Kennissiah,  or  the  Churches.  These  are 
found  at  the  summit  of  the  steep  rocks  that  border  this  part 
of  the  coast,  and  against  which  the  sea  dashes  its  waves. 
Steps,  still  seen  at  intervals,  have  been  formed  to  the  very 
top  of  the  elevation  ;  but  the  water  which  issues  from  the 
clefts  of  the  rocks,  and  a  carpeting  of  moss,  render  the  path- 
way-slippery, and  even  dangerous.  The  ascent  being  ac- 
complished, there  is  seen  a  little  semicircular  esplanade, 
round  which  runs  a  low  bench,  designed  as  a  resting-place  to 
the  families  of  Derna  who  repair  thither  to  perform  their 
funeral-rites.  The  largest  of  the  grottoes  appears  to  be  an 
ancient  sanctuary,  afterward  converted  into  a  Christian  chapeL 


120       THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS. 


All  the  others  must  have  been  merely  tombs  ;  though  the 
irregularity  of  their  position  and  the  inequality  of  the  rocks 
render  their  appearance  extremely  picturesque.  Arches  and 
niches  are  to  be  seen  in  them  of  every  form  and  dimension, 
from  the  full  Roman  semicircle  to  the  perfect  ogive  of  the 
middle  ages. 

The  district  of  Derna  has  acquired  a  factitious  importance 
from  a  modern  arrangement,  by  which  it  is  made  to  compre- 
hend the  Cyrenaica  together  with  the  five  Grecian  towns 
whence  originated  the  name  of  Pentapolis.  The  history  of 
Cyrene,  the  oldest  of  these  estabhshments,  is  given  by 
Herodotus  in  his  usual  manner,  mixing  fable  with  facts,  and 
connecting  real  events  with  the  legends  of  a  superstitious 
age.  A  colony  of  Spartans  having  joined  the  descendants 
of  certain  Phoenicians  in  the  Island  of  Calista,  engaged  in  a 
variety  of  exploits  suitable  to  the  spirit  of  the  times,  under 
Theras  their  chief.  Migrating  from  place  to  place,  they  at 
length  agreed  to  consult  the  oracle  as  to  their  final  resi- 
dence ;  when  their  leader  received  instructions  to  build  a 
house  in  Libya.  Some  lime  elapsed  before  the  meaning  of 
the  prophetess  was  clearly  understood  ;  nor  was  it  until  after 
they  had  been  taught  by  severe  suffering  the  true  import  of 
the  response,  that  a  pa»-ty  under  Battus,  the  son  of  Polym- 
nestus,  guided  by  Corobius,  a  native  of  Crete,  set  sail  for 
Africa,  and  landed  on  an  island  situated  in  the  Gulf  of 
Bomba.* 

Following  the  directions  of  the  oracle,  the  new  settlers 
removed  from  Platea,  the  island  on  which  they  first  took  up 
their  abode,  and  making  choice  of  the  high  ground  on  the 
shore  of  the  neighbouring  continent,  built  there  the  city  of 
Cyrene,  about  the  third  year  of  the  thirty-seventh  Olympiad, 
nearly  six  centuries  and  a  half  before  the  reign  of  Tiberius 
Csesar.  After  the  death  of  Battus  and  his  son  Arcesilaus, 
another  migration  from  Greece  added  so  much  to  their  num- 
bers that  it  became  necessary  to  extend  their  borders  into  the 
Libyan  territory.  The  natives  applied  to  Egypt  for  help 
against  the  invaders  ;  and  ari  army  sent  by  Apries,  the  Pharaoh 
Hophra  of  the  Scriptures,  soon  appeared  on  the  western 
edge  of  the  Desert,  prepared  to  check  the  inroads  of  the 
Lacedaemonian  colonists.    But '  the  skill  and  resolution  of 

*^  Herodot.  Melpomene,  c.  147-169. 


THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS.  l2l 


these  foreigners  proved  equal  to  the  emergency  which  was 
thus  created  ;  for,  meeting  the  Egyptians  at  a  place  indicated 
by  Herodotus,  near  the  Fountain  of  Theste,  they  inflicted 
upon  them  so  severe  a  defeat,  that  few  were  left  to  convey 
to  Memphis  the  tidings  of  their  calamity.  Success,  however, 
did  not  cement  the  bonds  of  their  union,  nor  confer  security 
upon  their  rising  commonwealth.  On  the  contrary,  a  series 
of  dissensions  led  to  the  separation  of  a  large  body,  who, 
abjuring  the  authority  of  their  prince,  founded  a  new  estab- 
lishment at  Barca  as  the  rivals  or  enemies  of  their  Grecian 
brethren. 

This  misunderstanding  was  soon  followed  by  war,  in  which 
the  Cyrenians  sustained  some  heavy  losses.  Insurrection 
and  murder  carried  their  horrors  into  both  countries,  and 
the  interposition  of  Egypt  was  again  implored  by  Pheretime, 
the  mother  of  Arcesilaus,  the  fourth  of  the  name.  Aryandes, 
the  deputy  of  Darius  Hystaspes,  listened  to  the  complaint  of 
his  royal  supplicant,  and  sent  to  the  scene  of  contention  an 
able  general  at  the  head  of  a  commandmg  force  ;  but  before 
adopting  decisive  measures,  he  despatched  a  messenger  to 
the  people  of  Barca,  desiring  to  be  informed  whether  they 
were  guilty  of  the  crimes  laid  to  their  charge.  On  their  ac- 
knowledging that  they  had  put  to  death  the  King  of  Gyrene, 
he  gave  orders  that  his  troops  should  advance,  accompanied 
by  a  fleet,  which  proceeded  along  the  coast.  After  a  long 
siege,  Barca  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Persian  leader,  who, 
in  violation  of  a  sacred  promise,  committed  the  inhabitants  to 
the  revenge  of  the  enraged  Gyrenians,  by  whom  they  were 
butchered  in  the  most  inhuman  marmer.  The  town  itself 
appears  to  have  fallen  into  decay,  and,  ^t  no  great  distance 
of  time,  to  have  been  relinquished  in  favour  of  the  port, 
which  gradually  rose  into  some  consequence. 

From  this  period  till  the  conquest  of  the  Persian  empire, 
the  affairs  of  Gyrene  are  hardly  mentioned  in  contempora- 
neous history.  Aristotle  remarks  that,  in  his  time,  the 
government  was  republican  ;  and  it  is  not  improbable  that, 
after  the  extinction  of  their  royal  line  and  the  success  of  the 
army  directed  by  Aryandes,  the  whole  country  became  sub- 
ject to  the  oriental  viceroy,  in  the  form  of  a  province.  At 
the  time  when  the  dispute  took  place  between  the  people  of 
Carthage  and  the  Cyrenians,  concerning  the  limits  of  their 
lespective  domains,  it  may  be  presumed,  from  the  account 


122      THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS. 


transmitted  of  it  by  Sallust,  that  democracy  was  already 
established  among  the  descendants  of  the  Spartan  emigrants. 
At  all  events  it  is  asserted  by  Strabo  that  they  continued  to 
enjoy  their  own  laws  till  Egypt  was  subdued  by  the  arms  of 
Alexander.  After  the  death  of  the  Macedonian  hero,  their 
country  once  more  became  the  prey  of  contending  adventur- 
ers, and  was  at  length  delivered  into  the  hands  of  King 
Ptolemy  by  the  general  Ophelias.  A  brother  of  the  Egyp- 
tian monarch,  named  Magas,  reigned  in.Cyrene  fifty  years  ; 
and  it  continued  to  be  ruled  by  the  Grecian  dynasty  of  prin- 
ces, now  seated  on  the  throne  of  the  Pharaohs,  till  Ptolemy 
Physcon  conferred  it  upon  his  illegitimate  son  Apion,  who 
afterward  bequeathed  it  by  will  to  the  Romans.  The  senate, 
it  is  well  known,  accepted  the  bequest,  but  allowed  the  sev- 
eral cities  of  the  Pentapolis  to  be  governed  by  their  own 
magistrates  ;  and  the  whole  territory,  in  consequence,  soon 
became  the  theatre  of  civil  discord,  and  exposed  to  the 
tyranny  of  ambitious  rivals,  all  of  whom  a.spired  to  the  local 
sovereignty.  Lucullus,  who  visited  it  during  the  first  Mith- 
ridatic  war,  restored  it  to  some  degree  of  tranquillity  ;  but  the 
source  of  dissension  and  internal  broils  was  not  entirely 
removed  until  the  Cyrenaica,  about  seventy  years  before  the 
birth  of  Christ,  was  formally  reduced  to  the  condition  of  a 
Roman  province.  At  a  later  period  it  was  united  in  one 
government  with  the  Island  of  Crete — an  arrangement  which 
subsisted  in  the  days  of  Strabo,  whose  attention,  as  the  geog- 
rapher of  the  empire,  was  particularly  drawn  to  its  territorial 
distributions. 

It  is  conjectured  that  during  the  period  which  Cyrene  en- 
joyed the  greatest  prosperity,  was  when  it  acknowledged  the 
authority  of  the  Egyptian  kings  who  succeeded  Alexander — 
an  epoch  when  art  was  in  the  highest  perfection,  and  htera- 
ture  in  equal  esteem.  For  the  same  reason,  it  appears  prob- 
able, that  when  the  Romans,  to  punish  a  tumult,  destroyed  a 
large  portion  of  the  city,  they  must  have  spared  the  temples 
and  other  public  buildings ;  for  the  principal  remains  which 
meet  the  eye  of  the  traveller  are  decidedly  Grecian,  of  an 
early  age,  apparently  still  more  ancierft  than  even  the  Ptole- 
maic dynasty.  A  similar  remark  applies  to  the  tombs  ;  al- 
though among  them  there  is  a  greater  variety,  embracing  ex- 
amples of  all  styles  in  the  successive  eras  of  African  or 
European  architecture. 


THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS.  123 


History  does  not  supply  us  with  the  means  of  determining 
to  what  causes  its  final  desertion  ought  to  be  ascribed  ;  but 
it  admits  not  of  any  doubt,  that,  in  the  fifth  century,  it  was 
already  a  heap  of  ruins,  and  that  its  wealth  and  honours  were 
transferred  to  the  episcopal  city  of  Ptolemais.  The  entire 
devastation  of  the  Greek  settlements,  however,  in  that  part 
of  Africa,  was  not  eflfected  till  the  reign  of  Chosroes,  the 
Persian  emperor,  who,  in  the  year  616,  overran  Syria  and 
Egypt,  and  even  advanced  as  far  as  the  confines  of  the 
modern  Tunis.  "  His  western  trophy  was  erected,"  says 
Gibbon,  "  not  on  the  walls  of  Carthage,  but  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Tripoh  ;  the  Greek  colonies  were  finally  extirpated  ; 
and  the  conqueror,  treading  in  the  footsteps  of  Alexander, 
returned  in  triumph  through  the  sands  of  the  Libyan  desert." 
The  Saracens  completed  the  work  of  the  Persians  ;  and  for 
seven  centuries  this  once  fertile  and  populous  region  has 
been  lost  to  civilizationj  to  commerce,  and  even  to  geograph- 
ical knowledge.  For  three  parts  of  the  year  Gyrene  is  un- 
inhabited, except  by  jackals  and  hyenas  ;  while,  during  the 
remainder,  the  wandering  Bedouins,  too  indolent  to  ascend 
the  higher  range  of  hills,  pitch  their  tents  chiefly  on  the  low 
ground  southward  of  the  summit  on  which  the  city  is  built. 

But  most  readers  will  be  disposed  to  take  a  greater  inter- 
est in  its  present  condition  than  in  its  ancient  history,  and  to 
read  the  events  and  acquisitions  of  the  past  in  the  relics 
which  still  remain  of  primitive  art  and  magnificence.  The 
latest  and  best  authorities  on  this  subject  are  Delia  Cella,  an 
Italian  physician,  M.  Pacho,  and  the  two  Beecheys  ;  all  of 
whom  examined  the  Pentapolis  in  person,  and  have  also  pub- 
lished their  observations  on  the  interesting  country  through 
which  they  passed. 

In  proceeding  westward  along  the  coast  of  the  Cyrenaica, 
the  traveller  finds  his  attention  arrested  by  the  ruins  of  Apol- 
lonia,  once  a  port  and  seat  of  merchandise  belonging  to  the 
African  Greeks.  It  is  situated  in  a  bay  formed  by  high 
cliffs,  which,  being  very  precipitous  towards  the  sea,  render  it 
almost  inaccessible  by  land,  except  through  those  deep  ra- 
vines that  occasionally  open  upon  the  shore.  A  succession 
of  rocks  projecting  into  the  water,,  from  east  to  southwest, 
probably  served  as  the  base  of  the  ancient  mole,  which  on 
that  side  protected  the  harbour  ;  and  upon  the  remains  of  this 
natural  bastion  are  the  vestiges  of  buildings,  of  which  some 


124      THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS. 


are  also  seen  rising  out  of  the  waves.  On  the  beach  are 
the  ruins  of  certain  houses  of  importance  ;  among  which  are 
several  columns  of  Pentilic  marble,  still  entire,  large  blocks 
of  wrought  granite,  and  a  few  arches  that  seem  to  have  sup- 
ported a  magnificent  edifice.  Near  the  hills  are  the  remains 
of  an  aqueduct,  constructed  for  the  purpose  of  conveying 
water  to  the  town  ;  and  upon  the  stones  are  numerous  in- 
scriptions, which,  though  defaced  by  time,  serve  as  records 
of  the  power  of  the  Romans,  and  their  frequent  intercourse 
with  this  part  of  Africa.* 

We  learn  from  the  same  authors,  that  Greek  inscriptions 
are  also  found  among  the  different  fragments  of  those  antique 
piles  ;  and  one,  in  particular,  which  the  Italian  disco\'ered 
near  the  sea,  has  given  rise  to  some  discussion.  He  remarks, 
that  it  was  executed  in  strange  and  whimsical  characters, 
very  troublesome  to  copy ;  but  which,  he  thinks,  supply  a 
memorial  of  the  people,  who,  at  various  periods,  have  fre- 
quented or  ruled  over  Apollonia.t 

This  port,  the  ancient  harbour  of  Gyrene,  and  known  in 
former  times  by  the  appellation  of  Sosuza,  is  now  denomi- 
nated by  the  Arabs  Marsa-Suza.  That  it  is  the  celebrated 
port  of  the  chief  seat  of  the  Grecian  settlements  there  can 
be  no  doubt,  as  well  from  its  magnificent  remains  as  from 
its  position,  which  coincides  with  that  laid  down  by  the  best 
geographers  ;  being  100  stadia  from  Naustadmos,  160  from 
the  promontory  Phycus,  and  80  from  Gyrene.  Surrounded 
by  precipitous  heights  towards  the  interior,  its  principal  use  at 
present  is  to  afford  an  asylum  to  the  natives,  when  pursued 
by  those  bands  of  robbers  who  dwell  near  the  Gulf  of  Bomba, 
and  who  sometimes  extend  their  predatory  excursions  as  far 
as  the  recesses  of  the  mountains  which  form  the  western 
boundary  of  Derna.t 

The  actual  condition  of  this  remarkable  place  affords  a 
strong  instance  in  support  of  the  opinion  advanced  by  most 
travellers  in  Northern  Africa,  that  the  Mediterranean  is  en- 
croaching fast  on  its  southern  shores,  while  it  is  gradually 

*  Delia  Cella,  p.  160.    A  D.  .  .  E  A  E.  S.  .  .  E  V.  .  ,— 

Ti  -  -  -  D  E.  M.  .  ■— CVMIC  

A  E.— D  V.  

C  V  N  .  .  . 

+  Beechey,  p.  568-580.  Delia  Cella,  p.  160. 
t  Delia  Cella,  Scyl.  Perip. ;  Strabo,  lib.  xvii. 


THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS.  125 


receding  from  those  of  Italy,  Dalmatia,  and  the  Morea. 
From  this  cause,  portions  of  the  elevated  ground  on  which 
the  front  of  the  town  was  built,  are  continually  falling  in ; 
the  scene  or  stage  of  the  principal  theatre  outside  the  walls 
has  been  wholly  swept  away  by  the  waves  ;  and  the  tombs 
along  the  beach  are  commonly  filled  with  water.  The  public 
edifice  now  mentioned  appears  to  have  rested  partly  oh  the 
natural  rock  and  partly  on  the  citadel ;  and  the  seats  must 
have  been  approached  from  above,  there  being  no  entry  at 
either  side.  As  the  ranges  of  the  subsellia  are  still  very  per- 
fect, the  effect  of  the  building,  as  it  now  presents  itself,  is  that 
of  a  stupendous  flight  of  steps  leading  down  from  the  bank  on 
which  they  repose  to  the  level  of  the  orchestra,  long  ago 
washed  away  by  the  sea. 

The  ground-plans  of  several  other  buildings  in  Apollonia 
may  still  be  traced  with  no  small  degree  of  certainty.  Those 
of  the  Christian  churches  in  particular  are  very  decided,  as 
well  as  the  remains  of  a  noble  structure,  of  a  similar  form,  at 
the  western  extremity  of  the  town.  The  handsome  marble 
columns,  that  now  encumber  the  edifices  which  they  once 
adorned,  aflford  evident  proofs  that  no  expense  had  been 
spared  in  the  erection  of  these  magnificent  temples  ;  for  the 
material  of  which  they  are  composed  is  not  found  in  this  part 
of  Africa,  and  must  have  been  transported  from  a  great  dis- 
tance at  an  immense  cost.  On  the  centre  of  the  shafts  of 
some  of  these  pillars.  Captain  Beechey  observed  the  figure 
of  a  large  cross  engraved  :  they  have  all  been  originally 
formed  of  single  pieces,  some  of  which  still  remain  entire, 
and  would,  he  thinks,  be  no  inappropriate  ornaments  to 
churches  of  modern  construction.  The  reflection  which  rises 
in  the  mind  of  the  gallant  officer  is  at  once  natural  and  be- 
coming ;  he  regards  these  splendid  monuments  of  Christian- 
ity, in  a  country  labouring  under  ignorance  and  supersti- 
tion, as  affording  pleasing  memorials  of  early  piety,  and  recal- 
ling the  active  times  of  Cyprian  and  Anastasius,  of  the  philo- 
sophic Synesius — himself  a  Cyrenian — and  other  distin- 
guished actors  in  those  memorable  scenes  which  Northern 
Africa  once  presented  to  an  admiring  world.  But  the  grass 
is  now  growing  over  the  altar-stone,  and  the  munificence 
which  gave  birth  to  these  stately  buildings  is  visible  only  in 
their  ruins. 

But  Cyrene  itself  is  still  more  interestuig  than  its  port, 
L  2 


126      THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS. 


Its  position,  we  are  told,  is  on  the  edge  of  a  range  of  hills, 
about  800  feet  in  height,  descending  in  terraces  one  below 
another,  till  they  are  each  met  by  the  level  ground,  which 
forms  the  summit  of  the  next  declivity.  At  the  foot  of  the 
upper  one,  on  which  the  city  was  built,  is  a  fine  sweep  of 
table-land,  most  beautifally  varied  with  wood,  among  which 
are  scattered  tracts  of  barley  and  com,  and  meadows  covered 
a  great  part  of  the  year  with  verdure.  Ravines,  the  sides  of 
which  are  thickly  planted  with  trees,  intersect  the  country  in 
various  directions,  and  supply  channels  for  the  mountain- 
streams  in  their  passage  to  the  sea.  This  elevated  platform 
extends  east  and  west  as  far  as  the  eye  can  follow  it ;  while 
the  lower  range,  which  runs  along  the  whole  coast  of  the 
Cyrenaica,  is  likewise  richly  wooded,  and  diversified  with 
deep  glens.  The  height  of  the  latter  may  be  estimated  at 
1,000  feet ;  and  the  city,  which  was  placed  on  the  upper  one, 
must  have  been  about  1,800  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, of  which  it  commanded  a  most  extensive  view. 
The  prospect,  indeed,  is  described  as  truly  magnificent,  and 
is  said  to  remain  in  the  mind  undiminished  in  interest  by  a 
comparison  with  others,  and  to  be  as  strongly  depicted  there 
after  a  lapse  of  years,  as  if  it  were  still  before  the  eyes  in  all 
the  distinctness  of  reality. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  sides  of  the  mountains  did  not 
descend  abruptly  to  the  plain  below,  but  in  terraces,  one  un- 
der another,  which  at  length  terminate  on  the  level  of  the 
beach.  The  inhabitants  have  skilfully  taken  advantage  of 
this  formation,  and  shaped  the  ledges  into  roads,  leading 
along  the  side  of  the  hill,  which  seem  to  have  originally  com- 
municated with  one  another  by  means  of  steps  cut  in  the 
rock.  These  drives  are  to  this  day  distinctly  lined  with  the 
marks  of  chariot-wheels,  deeply  indented  in  their  stony  sur- 
face. In  most  instances,  the  cliffs  rise  perpendicularly  from 
one  side  of  these  aerial  galleries,  and  are  excavated  into  innu- 
merable tombs,  which  have  been  formed  with  immense  labour 
and  care, — the  greater  number  being  adorned  with  architec- 
tural fa9ades  built  against  the  polished  rock,  and  thereby  con- 
tributhig  much  to  the  beauty  of  the  scene.  The  outer  sides 
of  the  esplanades,  where  the  descent  takes  place  from  one 
range  to  another,  are  ornamented  with  sarcophagi  and  mon- 
umental tombs ;  while  the  whole  space  between  the  terraces 
must  have  been  completely  filled  with  similar  structures. 


THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS.  127 


These,  as  well  as  the  excavated  sepulchres,  exhibit  very  su- 
perior taste  and  execution ;  and  the  clusters  of  dark-green 
furze  and  slertder  shrubs,  with  which  they  are  now  partly 
overgrown,  give,  by  their  contrast  of  form  and  colour,  an  ad- 
ditional effect  to  the  multitude  of  white  buildings  that  spring 
■up  in  the  midst  of  them. 

The  tombs  generally  consist  of  a  single  chamber  ;  at  the 
end  of  which,  opposite  the  doorway,  is  an  elegant  fagade, 
almost  always  of  the  Doric  order,  cut  in  the  rock  v/ith  consid- 
erable taste  and  exactness.  It  usually  represents  a  portico  ; 
and  the  number  of  columns  by  which  it  was  supported  varied 
according  to  the  length  of  the  room.  Between  the  pillars 
were  niches  cut  deep  into  the  mountain,  for  the  reception  of 
the  ashes  or  bodies  of  the  deceased  ;  the  dimensions  of  which 
were  also  regulated  by  the  height  of  the  columns  and  their  dis- 
tance from  one  another.  In  several  of  these  vaults  were  dis- 
covered remains  of  painting,  exhibiting  historical,  allegorical, 
and  pastoral  subjects,  executed  in  the  manner  of  those  found 
at  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii ;  some  of  which,  we  are  assured, 
were  by  no  means  inferior  to  the  best  specimens  preserved 
in  these  cities.  It  appears,  moreover,  that  the  different 
members  of  the  architecture  must,  in  many  instances,  have 
been  coloured  ;  examples  which  may  be  adduced  in  confirma- 
tion of  an  opinion  founded  on  the  recent  discoveries  at  Ath- 
ens, that  the  Greeks,  like  the  Egyptians,  were  in  the  habit 
of  staining  their  buildings,  and  thereby  sullying  the  modest 
hue  of  their  Parian  and  Pentilic  marbles. 

In  a  ravine  on  the  western  side  of  the  city  were  likewise 
found  a  number  of  tombs,  similar  in  most  respects  to  those 
already  described.  In  truth,  the  various  terraces  formed 
into  roads  seem  to  prove  that  the  people  of  Gyrene  delighted 
in  streets  of  sepulchral  monuments,  and  were  wont  to  take 
their  pastime  surrounded  by  the  mouldering  bodies  of  their 
ancestors.  In  passing  along  the  galleries  here,  Mr.  Beechey 
discovered  one  instance  of  a  mixture  of  two  orders  of  archi- 
tecture in  the  same  building — the  portico  being  raised  on 
Ionic  columns  surrounded  with  a  Doric  entablature. 

But,  if  the  excavated  tombs  are  objects  of  much  interest, 
those  also  which  have  been  built  on  every  side  of  this  an- 
cient town  are  no  less  entitled  to  notice  and  admiration. 
Several  months,  it  is  said,  might  be  employed  in  making 
drawings  of  the  most  conspicuous  of  these  elegant  structures ; 


1'28     THE  CYRENAICA  AXD  PENTAPOLIS. 


many  of  which  are  erected  in  imitation  of  temples,  although 
there  are  scarcely  two  of  them  exactly  alike.  A  judicious 
observer  might  select  from  these  mausoleums  examples  of 
Grecian  and  Roman  taste  through  a  long  succession  of  inter- 
esting periods  ;  and  the  progress  of  the  architectural  art 
might  thus  be  satisfactorily  traced,  from  its  early  state  among 
the  first  inhabitants  of  Cyrene,  to  its  final  decay  in  the  hands 
of  Italian  colonists  during  the  decline  of  the  empire.  Innu- 
merable busts  and  statues  originally  adorned  these  mansions 
of  the  dead,  and  many  of  them  are  still  seen  half-buried  be- 
neath heaps  of  rubbish  and  soil  at  the  foot  of  the  buildings, 
of  which  they  onc^e  occupied  the  most  elevated  parts.  Those 
entirely  above  ground  are  usually  observed  broken  into  sev- 
eral pieces,  or  so  much  mutilated  as  to  have  become  mere 
trunks  ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  great  numbers  are  still 
existing  in  a  perfect  state,  very  little  sunk  under  the  surface, 
which  might  be  procured  at  a  trifling  expense.  Mr.  Beechey 
mentions,  in  regard  to  these  remains  of  art,  an  absurd  incon- 
sistency in  the  Arab  character.  The  very  same  statue  which 
they  would  walk  over  day  after  day,  without  ever  honouring  it 
with  a  glance  in  passing,  will  in  all  probability  be  shivered  to 
atoms  the  moment  it  becomes  an  object  of  particular  notice.* 

It  need  scarcely  be  observed,  that  the  style  of  architecture 
in  which  the  monumental  tombs  have  been  constructed  varies 
according  to  the  date  of  the  building,  and  apparently,  also,  to 
the  consequence  of  the  persons  interred  in  them.  The  order 
employed,  more  especially  in  the  earlier  examples,  is  for  the 
most  part  Doric.  From  certain  circumstances  it  is  conclu- 
ded, that  the  custom  of  burying  the  entire  corpse  very  gen- 
erally prevailed  in  Cyrene  and  other  cities  of  the  Pentapolis  ; 
and  this  is  one  of  the  few  instances  in  which  any  analogy  is 
perceived  between  the  customs  of  the  Grecian  colonists  and 
those  of  the  Egyptians.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  the 
practice  of  burning  the  bodies,  and  of  preserving  the  ashes 
in  urns,  prevailed  also  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  Cyre- 
naica,  as  it  did  in  the  other  states  whose  origin  was  similar. 

But  the  tombs  are  not  the  only  structures  of  which  the 
plan  and  the  materials  may  still  be  recognised.  The  ground 
on  which  the  city  stood  is,  indeed,  so  greatly  encumbered 
with  decayed  vegetables,  and  a  thick  stratum  of  new  soil, 
that  it  is  no  easy  matter  to  detect  the  numerous  columns  and 

»  Proceedings,  &c.,  p.  500,  &c. 


THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS. 


129 


statues  which  He  half-buried  in  its  bosom.  Mr.  Beechey  and 
his  friends  discovered  the  remains  of  two  theatres  ;  but  so 
much  was  the  mould  now  mentioned  heaped  about  the  walls, 
that,  had  it  not  been  for  the  semicircular  shape  of  the  green 
masses  which  presented  themselves  to  the  eye,  no  one  could 
have  suspected  they  concealed  the  ruins  of  large  edifices. 
The  pillars  which  once  ornamented  the  scene  in  the  larger 
of  these  buildings  had  been  thrown  from  the  basement  on 
which  they  formerly  stood,  and  were  scattered  in  various 
places  along  the  whole  length  of  the  range.  Among  them 
were  several  statues,  which  appeared  to  have  been  portraits, 
executed  with  great  freedom  and  taste,  and  beyond  were  the 
Corinthian  capitals  of  the  columns,  which  had  rolled  in  their 
fall  to  some  distance  from  their  position.  These,  as  well  as 
the  bases,  were  composed  of  a  fine  white  marble,  the  pohsh 
of  which  was  in  general  very  perfect ;  and  the  shafts,  con- 
sisting of  a  coloured  species,  were  formed  of  single  pieces, 
which  added  considerably  to  the  effect  produced  by  the  cost- 
liness of  the  material.  The  able  artist,  on  whose  description 
we  now  rely,  thinks  that  this  theatre  must  have  been  Roman, 
and  is  disposed  to  ascribe  it  to  the  time  of  Augustus  or  of 
Hadrian.  The  whole  depth  of  the  building,  including  the 
seats,  the  orchestra,  and  the  stage,  appears  to  have  been 
about  150  feet,  and  the  length  of  the  scene  about  the  same. 
The  porticoes  in  the  rear  of  the  seats  are  250  feet  long,  and 
the  space  between  these  and  the  colonnade  at  the  back  of  the 
scene,  is  of  equal  extent.  The  edifice  would  thus  appear  to 
have  been  comprehended  in  a  square  of  250  feet,  not  inclu- 
ding the  depth  of  the  portico  behind  the  subsellia,  which,  it  is 
admitted,  is  rather  uncertain.  Like  many  of  the  Grecian 
theatres,  it  has  been  built  against  the  side  of  a  hill,  which,  as 
at  Apollonia,  forms  the  support  of  the  seats,  the  highest 
range  of  which  must  have  been  on  a  level  with  the  platform 
at  the  back,  from  whence  the  spectators  descended  to  the  lower 
benches.  The  situation  of  this  place  of  amusement  is  said  to 
be  extremely  delightful,  and  worthy  of  a  structure  which, 
when  perfect,  must  have  been  a  very  beautiful  object :  the 
richness  of  the  materials  of  which  the  columns  were  formed 
adding  greatly  to  its  effect,  in  respect  of  splendour,  if  not  pre- 
cisely in  point  of  taste.* 

*  Beechey,  p.  503.  We  quote  the  opinions  of  Mr.  Beechey, 
the  Captain's  brother. 


130      THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS. 


The  plan  of  the  other  theatre  varies  materially  from  that 
of  the  one  now  described,  and  its  proportions  are  also  very 
different.  Instead  of  being  approached  from  above,  like  the 
other,  there  are  five  passages  by  which  the  spectators  enter- 
ed, and  two  communicating  with  some  place  beneath  the 
front  of  the  stage,  which,  however,  are  so  much  blocked  up 
with  rubbish,  that  it  is  impossible  to  explore  them.  Some 
rows  of  seats  were  found  hollow — a  fact  which  seemed  to 
give  a  degree  of  confirmation  to  a  statement  mentioned  by 
Vitruvius,  that  the  Greeks  were  in  the  habit  of  placing  in  the 
interior  of  their  benches  in  public  buildings  a  species  of  bra- 
zen vase,  by  means  of  which  the  sound  was  considerably  im- 
proved. No  materials  remain  to  confirm  the  conjecture  ; 
for,  although  the  vacant  spaces  in  the  subsellia  were  carefully 
formed,  as  if  with  the  view  of  accomphshing  some  object, 
nothing  was  found  in  them  except  a  few  species  of  pottery. 

No  part  of  the  stage,  if  we  omit  the  lower  section  of  a 
wall,  is  now  standing.  The  width  of  the  orchestra,  where  it 
joins  the  proscenium,  is  not  more  than  sixty  feet,  and  its 
depth  about  eighty,  while  the  space  occupied  by  the  seats 
could  not  be  more  than  forty.  There  are,  however,  extensive 
remains  of  certain  buildings  which  must  have  been  attached 
to  the  eastern  side  of  this  theatre  ;  so  large,  indeed,  as  to 
have  enclosed  public  walks,  and  to  have  been  ornamented 
with  numerous  porticoes  and  statues.  Among  these  last  there 
is  one  which,  from  the  Ammon's  head,  and  the  eagles  which 
decorate  the  armour,  is  supposed  to  represent  a  Ptolemy ; 
while  near  it  is  another,  which  must  have  been  meant  to  do 
honour  to  a  Berenice,  an  Arsinoe,  or  a  Cleopatra.  ' 

On  the  outside  of  the  walls,  westward  of  the  ancient  city, 
are  the  ruins  of  an  amphitheatre,  which  must  likewise  have 
been  a  striking  object.  It  has  been  constructed  on  the  verge 
of  a  precipice,  commanding  a  most  extensive  and  beautiful 
view,  and  receiving  in  all  its  purity  the  freshness  of  the 
northern  breeze,  so  grateful  in  an  African  climate.  Part  of 
it,  as  usual,  is  built  against  the  side  of  a  hill,  which  support- 
ed the  seats  fronting  the  precipice  ;  and  that  portion  of  it 
which  bordered  upon  the  verge  of  the  Desert  rose  abruptly 
from  the  edge,  like  a  stupendous  wall,  overlooking  the  coun- 
try below.  The  foundations  of  this  part  of  the  edifice  ap- 
pear to  have  been  remarkably  strong,  and  are  even  now  very 
complete  ;  but  the  subsellia  raised  upon  them  have  been  turn- 


THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS. 


131 


bled  from  their  places,  and  lie  around  in  broken  masses.  On 
the  side  which  has  the  hill  for  its  basis  nearly  forty  rows  of 
seats  are  still  remaining,  one  above  the  other ;  and  though 
each  of  these  is  fifteen  mches  in  height,  the  edge  of  the  pre- 
cipice appears  from  the  upper  range  to  be  quite  close  to  the 
lowest,  although  in  fact  the  whole  of  the  arena,  not  less  than 
100  feet  in  diameter,  intervenes  between  them.  There  are 
traces  of  a  Doric  colonnade  along  the  margin  of  the  cliflf, 
forming  the  north  side  of  one  of  the  enclosed  spaces  con- 
tiguous to  the  amphitheatre.  The  capitals  are  said  to  be 
beautifully  executed. 

As  few  remains  of  dwelling-houses  are  observed  on  the 
northern  side  of  the  town,  it  is  supposed  not  to  have  been 
very  closely  inhabited.  There  seems,  however,  to  have  been 
no  want  of  public  edifices  ;  for  travellers  have  distinguished 
the  ruins  of  two  spacious  temples,  as  well  as  of  the  stadium, 
that  ornament  of  Grecian  towns.  Of  the  former,  the  largest 
is  169  feet  in  length  and  61  in  breadth.  The  architecture  is 
Doric,  of  the  early  style  ;  and  the  capitals,  though  much  de- 
faced, still  exhibit  proofs  of  excellent  taste  and  workmanship. 
The  smaller  temple,  besides  being  built  on  rising  ground, 
has  the  additional  elevation  of  a  very  solid  basement,  consid- 
erably abov€  the  level  of  the  surface.  The  dimensions  are 
111  feet  by  50.  The  capitals  of  some  fluted  columns  lying 
at  the  bottom  of  the  eminence  are  of  no  decided  order,  and 
present,  it  is  thought,  a  mixture  of  Greek  and  Egyptian — a 
combination  which  will  not  be  deemed  improbable  within 
the  precincts  of  Gyrene.  The  stadium  has  felt  more  than 
either  of  the  fanes  now  described  the  wasting  hand  of  time  ; 
the  course  is  overgrown  with  the  rankest  vegetation,  and 
nearly  all  the  masonry  has  disappeared.  The  length  is  some- 
what more  than  700  feet,  the  width  being  about  250  ;  and, 
like  the  theatres,  it  seems  to  have  had  some  contiguous 
buildings  subsidiary  to  its  uses,  and  comprehended  in  its  plan. 
Still,  it  is  allowed,  that  in  the  tombs  are  preserved  the  finest  spe- 
cimens of  Grecian  art  now  extant  in  Gyrene  ;  nearly  the  whole 
of  this  famed  city,  including  its  public  and  private  structures, 
being  reduced  to  an  undistinguishable  mass  of  rubbish. 

But  there  is  reason  to  doubt  whether  many  of  the  grottoes 
which  wear  the  appearance  of  repositories  for  the  dead, 
were  not  rather  originally  intended  as  abodes  for  the  hving. 
This  is  the  opinion  of  M.  Pacho,  who  found  in  a  mountain 


132      THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS. 


between  Cyrene  and  ApoUonia  a  vast  number  of  excavations, 
which  had  not  in  his  eyes  ihe  sUghtest  indication  of  a  se- 
pulchral design.  Some  of  them  are  so  capacious  that  you 
may  enter  them  on  horseback.  Several  are  adorned  in  front 
with  a  monolithic  portico,  and  an  open  hall ;  others  have 
either  a  straight  or  a  winding  avenue  ;  and  one  of  them  is  dis' 
tinguished  by  a  handsome  staircase,  cut  in  the  solid  rock, 
and  adorned  with  an  arched  roof  of  masonwork.  This  ex- 
pensive canopy,  he  thinks,  was  intended  to  shelter  from  the 
rains  the  inhabitants  of  Cyrene,  who  came  hither  to  inspect 
the  merchandise  sent  from  their  port ;  for,  "  doubtless,"  he 
adds,  "  these  large  hypogea  were  rrmgazines."  They  have 
for  many  years  offered  a  convenient  residence  to  the  Arabs 
of  Barca  ;  and  whole  tribes  have  successively  taken  up  their 
abode  in  them.  Hordes  of  bandiiti,  it  is  true,  have  occasion- 
ally invaded  these  peaceful  retreats  ;  have  driven  away  their 
occupants,  and  made  them  a  receptacle  for  their  plunder  ;  but 
their  ascendency  has  never  been  of  long  duration.  The 
neighbouring  tribes  have  united  ;  the  robbers  have  been  dis- 
persed ;  and  the  lawful  proprietors  have  gained  possession  of 
their  troglodytic  town.* 

In  the  ravine  beyond  the  western  limits  of  the  city,  this 
traveller  discovered  an  excavation  which,  in  point  of  magni- 
tude and  beauty,  surpassed  all  that  he  had  examined  in  any 
other  quarter.  It  appears  to  be  situated  about  halfway  be- 
tween the  bottom  of  the  dell  and  the  level  of  the  plain  above, 
from  both  of  which  there  are  regular  approaches  cut  with  in- 
finite care.  Having  entered  the  cavern,  he  found  himself  in 
a  vast  quadrangle  surrounded  with  a  low  bench.  At  the  far- 
ther end  is  a  square  altar,  above  which  is  a  larger  niche,  de- 
signed, as  he  imagined,  to  receive  the  statue  of  the  presiding 
deity.  The  walls  are  overgrown  with  a  rank  vegetation,  which 
it  is  necessary  to  tear  down  in  order  to  decipher  the  inscrip- 
tions with  which  they  are  covered.  It  may  be  seen  at  the  first 
glance  that  they  belong  to  very  different  epochs  ;  every  cor- 
ner of  the  excavation  being  bedaubed  in  the  most  fantastic 
manner.  Some  are  deeply  engraved  in  letters  of  five  or  six 
inches  long,  while  others  are  in  so  small  a  character  as  to  be 
scarcely  perceptible.  Besides  which,  here  and  there  occur  a 
number  of  unconnected  names,  such  as  Aristoteles,  Alexan- 


♦  Voyage  dans  la  Marmarique,  p.  193. 


THE  CYRENAICAAND  PENTAPOLIS.  133 


der,  Jason,  and  Agathocles.  It  would  seem,  continues  M. 
Pacho,  that  the  place  was  an  excavated  temole,  consecrated 
probably  to  one  of  the  principal  divinities  of  Cyrene,  and  that 
strangers  came  to  visit  it  in  the  discharge  of  a  sacred  duty. 
The  situation,  too,  of  this  religious  monument,  near  the  only 
forest  which  is  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  town,  appears  to 
accord  perfectly  with  the  presumed  object  and  origin  of  this 
wood  ;  leading  back  the  mind  to  the  very  earliest  period  of 
the  Greek  colony  in  Libya.  The  majestic  cypresses  which 
compose  it  are  thus  viewed  as  th3  descendants  of  those  trees 
which  the  chief  of  the  Battiades  consecrated  to  the  service 
of  the  gods.* 

It  is  not  improbable  that  the  scenes  now  described  gave  rise 
to  the  fiction  of  the  "petrified  village"  mentioned  by  Shaw, 
which  for  a  time  excited  no  small  interest  among  the  philos- 
ophers of  Europe.  The  Tripoline  ambassador  at  London, 
to  whom  inquiries  were  addressed  relative  to  so  strange  a  phe- 
nomenon, reported,  on  the  authority  of  a  friend  who  had  been 
upon  the  spot,  that  it  comprehended  a  large  town  of  a  circu- 
lar figure,  which  had  several  streets,  shops,  and  a  magnificent 
castle  belonging  to  it ;  that  his  informant  saw  different  sorts 
of  trees,  but  mostly  the  olive  and  the  palm,  all  turned  into  a 
bluish  or  cinder-coloured  stone  ;  that  there  were  men  also  in 
different  postures  and  attitudes,  some  of  them  exercising 
their  trades  and  occupations,  others  holding  bread  and  similar 
articles  in  their  hands  ;  that  of  the  women  some  were  giving 
suck  to  their  children,  while  others  were  sitting  at  their  knead- 
ing-troughs  ;  that  in  entering  the  castle  there  was  a  man  ly- 
ing upon  a  gorgeous  bed  of  stone,  with  guards  standing  at  the 
doors  armed  with  pikes  and  spears  ;  and  that  he  observed 
different  sorts  of  animals,  such  as  camels,  oxen,  asses,  horses, 
sheep,  and  birds,  all  of  them  converted  into  stone,  and  of  the 
same  bluish  colour.  Some  of  the  figures  were  said  to  want 
their  hands,  others  a  leg  or  an  arm.  It  was  farther  related, 
that  several  pieces  of  petrified  money  had  been  brought  from 
thence  ;  not  a  few  of  which  were  as  large  as  an  English  shil- 
ling, with  a  horse's  head  on  the  one  side  and  unknown  charac- 
ters on  the  other,  t 

*  Voyage,  &c.,  p.  230.  Modem  Traveller,  Africa,  vol.  i.,  p.  174. 
t  Travels  or  Observations  relatino^  to  several  Parts  of  Barba- 
ry,  vol.  i.,  p.  286,  Edinburgh  edition,  1803. 

M 


X 


134      THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS. 

The  Necropolis  of  Cyrene,  with  its  numerous  statues  and 
chambers,  variously  colomed,  might  well  suggest  to  the  super- 
stitious mind  of  an  ignorant  Bedouin  the  notion  of  a  petrified 
town.  Delia  Cella  affords  the  materials  of  a  different  expla- 
nation, by  alluding  to  the  depositions  which  take  place  in  the 
natural  caves  of  calcareous  mountains.  He  visited  one  of 
these  near  Safsaf,  which,  he  remaj-ks,  had  acquired  great  ce- 
lebrity from  the  credulity  of  the  neighbouring  inhabitants, 
who,  in  the  stalactites,  discover  the  images  of  petrified  gods, 
men,  and  monsters,  every  one  giving  to  each  fantastical  form 
the  name  which  suits  his  fancy.* 

Dr.  Shaw  had  been  induced  to  perform  a  dangerous  jour- 
ney to  Hamam,  in  Numidia,  having  been  assured  by  the 
Arabs,  with  the  most  solemn  asseverations,  that  a  number  of 
tents  might  be  seen  there,  surrounded  by  cattle  of  different 
kinds  converted  into  stone.  On  arriving,  however,  at  the 
place,  he  had  the  mortification  to  find  that  all  the  accounts 
which  he  had  heard  were  idle  and  fictitious,  and  without  the 
smallest  foundation  except  in  the  extravagant  brains  of  the 
natives.  He  tells  us,  moreover,  that  about  forty  years  prior 
to  the  time  at  which  he  wrote,  M.  le  Maire,  the  French  con- 
sul at  Tripoli,  made  inquiry,  at  the  desire  of  his  court,  into 
the  truth  of  the  popular  rumour  as  to  petrified  bodies  at  Ras 
Sem.  The  janizaries,  who,  in  collecting  the  tribute,  travel 
every  year  through  the  district  in  question,  promised  to  grat- 
ify his  wishes  ;  adding,  however,  that,  as  an  adult  person 
would  be  too  heavy  to  carry,  they  could  only  undertake  to 
bring  him  the  body  of  a  young  child.  After  a  great  many 
difficulties,  delays,  and  disappointments,  they  at  length  pro- 
duced a  little  Cupid,  which  they  had  found,  as  he  afterward 
learned,  among  the  ruins  of  Leptis,  and,  to  conceal  the  de- 
ceit, they  broke  off  the  quiver  and  some  of  the  other  charac- 
teristics of  this  insidious  deity.  Adepts  in  fraud,  they  repre- 
sented to  the  Frenchman  that,  if  they  had  been  detected  in 
the  act  of  putting  into  the  hands  of  an  infidel  one  of  the  un- 
fortunate Mussulmans  whose  remains  they  had  visited,  they 
should  certainly  have  been  strangled  by  their  countrymen  ; 
and,  upon  the  ground  of  this  frightful  hazard,  they  raised  a 
charge  of  1,000  dollars.  In  short,  his  most  earnest  inquiries, 
supported  by  the  offer  of  great  rewards,  brought  nothing  to 


Travels  in  Barbaiy,  p.  163. 


THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS.  135 


light.  After  sending  a  number  of  individuals  expressly,  and 
at  no  small  cost,  to  make  discoveries,  he  could  never  learn 
that  any  traces  of  walls,  buildmgs,  animals,  or  articles  of  fur- 
niture, were  to  be  seen  within  the  verge  of  the  petrified,  dis- 
trict.* 

Captain  Smyth,  of  his  majesty's  ship  the  Adventure,  like 
the  learned  author  just  named,  was  prevailed  upon  to  travel 
as  far  as  Ghirza  on  a  similar  mission  ;  being  informed  by  the 
Sultan  of  Fezzan,  who  had  recently  returned  from  a  marau- 
ding expedition,  that  he  passed  through  the  desolate  city, 
which  abounded  in  spacious  buildings,  and  was  ornamented 
with  such  a  profusion  of  statues  as  to  have  all  the  appearance 
of  an  inhabited  place.  This  account,  supported  by  several 
collateral  circumstances,  impressed  him  with  the  idea  that  it 
must  be  the  celebrated  Ras  Sem,  and  consequently  inspired 
him  with  a  strong  desire  to  repair  thither.  After  a  toilsome 
march  of  nine  days'  duration,  he  was  sorely  disappointed  on 
seeing  some  badly-constructed  houses,  of  comparatively  mod- 
ern date,  and  a  few  tombs  at  a  small  distance.  On  ap- 
proaching the  latter,  he  found  them  of  a  mixed  style,  and  in 
very  indifferent  taste,  decorated  with  ill-proportioned  columns 
and  clumsy  capitals.  The  regular  architectural  divisions  of 
frieze  and  cornice  being  neglected,  nearly  the  whole  depth 
of  the  entablatures  is  loaded  with  absurd  representations  of 
warriors,  huntsmen,  camels,  horses,  and  other  animals,  in  low 
relief.  The  human  figures  are  miserably  executed  and  gen- 
erally small,  varying,  even  on  the  same  tomb,  from  three  feet 
and  a  half  to  twelve  inches.! 

In  the  neighbourhood  the  captain  observed  a  monumental 
obelisk  of  heavy  proportions,  and  near  it  four  tombs,  present- 
ing a  similar  style  and  ornaments  with  those  already  descri- 
bed. They  are  remarkable,  however,  as  combining  more  dis- 
tinctly a  mixture  of  Greek  and  Egyptian  architecture,  and. 
are  placed  so  as  to  give  a  singular  interest  to  the  scene.  A 
wandering  Bedouin,  who  had  resided  some  time  in  the  valley, 
produced  a  fine  medal,  in  brass,  of  the  elder  Faustina,  which 
he  had.  found  in  the  .immediate  vicinity.  The  tombs  appear 
to  have  remained  uninjured  by  the  action  of  either  the  sun  or 

*  Travels,  vol.  i.,  p.  292. 

t  Captain  Smyth's  Journal  is  printed  in  Captain  Beechey'a 
work,  p.  504-512. 


136      THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS. 


the  atmosphere,  and  therefore  the  sculpture,  if  such  it  ought 
to  be  called,  continues  in  its  original  completeness. 

As  ihese  edifices  are  near  the  Fezzan  road,  people  from 
the  interior  have  bean  occasionally  induced  to  examine  them ; 
and,  being  the  only  specimens  Oi  the  art  they  ever  saw,  they 
have,  not  unnaturally,  on  their  arrival  at  the  coast,  described 
them  in  glowing  colours.  It  is  the  opinion  of  Captain  Smyth, 
that  it  must  have  been  this  nucleus,  as  he  calls  it,  which  soon 
swelled  into  a  petrified  city,  and,  at  length,  not  only  attracted 
the  curiosity  of  Europe,  but  also  obtamed  general  beUef  in 
Africa.  It  has  been  deemed  a  species  of  pilgrimage,  as  the 
caravans  pass,  to  resort  thither,  and  to  utter  or  inscribe  a 
prayer  for  the  unhappy  Moslem  who  are  confined  to  that 
dreary  solitude  in  the  form  of  stone.  Notwithstanding  the 
diminutive  size  and  despicable  execution  of  the  carved  figures, 
the  Turks  view  them  with  admiration  and  respect,  extolling 
the  powers  of  art  which,  in  its  imitations,  can  approach  so 
near  to  the  wonderful  works  of  nature  I* 

Such  was  the  only  direct  issue  of  the  journey  to  the  petri- 
fied city  at  Ghirza  ;  in  the  course  of  which,  however,  though 
the  result  fell  short  of  his  expectations,  more  was  obtained 
and  accomplished  by  Captain  Smyth  than  has  yet  rewarded 
the  exertions  of  any  other  travellers  who  have  compared  the 
actual  state  of  particular  districts  with  the  florid  descriptions 
given  of  them  by  the  Arabs. 

As  an  apology  for  the  deception  practised  by  the  natives 
on  themselves,  as  well  as  on  strangers,  it  is  proper  to  ob- 
serve, that,  in  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Beechey,  who  accompanied 
his  brother,  all  the  excavated  tombs  were  originally  adorned 
with  paintings  in  body-colour,  representing  compositions 

*  It  is  still  more  probable,  that  the  idea  of  a  petrified  city  has 
been  suggested  by  the  appearance  of  Gyrene  and  other  towns 
of  the  Pentapolis.  Bruce,  who  also  visited  Ras  Sem,  remarks, 
"  I  was  not  fortunate  enough  to  discover  the  petrified  men  and 
horses,  the  women  at  the  chum,  the  little  children,  the  cats, 
the  dogs,  and  the  mice,  which  his  barbarian  excellency  assured 
Sir  Hans  Sloane  existed  there ;  yet,  in  vindication  of  his  ex- 
cellency, I  must  say  that,  though  he  propagated,  he  did  not  in- 
vent this  falsehood ;  the  Arabs  w^ho  conducted  me  maintained 
the  same  stories  to  be  true  till  I  was  within  two  hours  of  the 
place,  when  I  found  them  to  be  false."  It  is  deserving  of  notice, 
that  the  Ras  Sem  of  Shaw  and  Bruce  cannot  now  be  identified. 


THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS.  137 


either  of  figures  or  animals.  The  prevailing  teints  are  blue 
and  red.  The  triglyphs  and  some  other  members  of  the 
fa9ades  were  invariably  stained  blue,  the  mouldings  and  other 
details  red  ;  while  the  larger  parts  of  the  entablature  seem  to 
have  been  uniformly  left  plain.  In  an  excavated  tomb  with 
a  Doric  portico,  there  was  found  a  series  of  beautiful  little 
subjects  painted  on  the  frieze  of  an  interior  fa9ade,  each  com- 
position occupying  one  of  the  metopes.  The  outline  of  these 
highly-finished  groups  has  bec-n  very  carefully  put  in  with 
red  ;  the  local  colour  of  the  flesh  and  the  draperies  has  then 
been  filled  in  with  body-colours,  and  the  lights  touched  on 
sharp  with  a  full  and  free  pencil,  greatly  resembling  the  fine 
execution  of  the  paintings  at  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii. 

No  object  at  Cyrene  appeared  more  interesting  than  the 
Fountain  of  Apollo,  whence  issues  a  stream  well  calculated 
to  refresh  the  weary  traveller.  At  the  foot  of  the  hill  which 
supplies  the  water  is  an  excavated  chamber,  from  which  there 
is  an  opening  cut  into  the  interior  of  the  rock,  to  a  distance 
not  yet  ascertained  ;  and  along  this  channel  the  current  flows 
with  great  rapidity,  till  it  precipitates  itself  into  a  basin  form- 
ed to  receive  it  on  a  level  with  the  floor  of  the  apartment. 
On  one  side  of  the  cascade  are  two  cellars,  or  rather  one  di- 
vided into  two  parts ;  and  in  the  farther  section  is  a  second 
basin,  sunk  below  the  level  of  the  chamber,  which  appears  to 
have  originally  communicated  with  the  stream  by  means  of 
a  small  aperture  in  the  rock  just  above  it.  This  reservoir,  it 
is  thought,  must  have  been  originally  devoted  to  the  service 
of  the  priests,  who  had  the  charge  of  the  sacred  fountain,  in 
the  performance  of  their  religious  ceremonies.  Nearly  op- 
posite to  it  is  what  appears  to  be  the  principal  entrance, 
where  was  found  a  tablet  broken  into  two  pieces,  and  also 
the  fragment  of  ?.  fluted  column.  On  the  former,  which  is 
of  white  marble,  are  sculptured  three  female  figures  in  ex- 
cellent style,  and  finished  with  all  the  delicacy  and  taste  of 
the  most  refined  periods.  In  front  of  the  approach,  two  por- 
ticoes appear  to  have  been  erected  ;  and  on  a  part  of  the  cliff, 
at  right  angles  with  the  face  of  the  precipice,  is  an  inscription 
in  Doric  Greek  recording  the  name  of  the  founder. 

The  channel  or  passage,  we  are  told,  is  formed  entirely  in 
the  rock  from  which  the  stream  issues,  and  continues  in  an 
irregular  course  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  into  the  heart 
pf  the  mountain.  The  sides  and  roof  of  it  are  flat,  where 
M3 


138      THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS. 


time  and  the  action  of  the  current  have  not  corroded  the  sur- 
face ;  but  the  bottom  is  encumbered  with  stones  bedded  fast 
in  the  clay.  The  height  in  general  was  about  five  feet ; 
though  in  some  places  where  there  appear  to  have  originally 
been  flaws  or  fissures  in  the  stone,  the  roof  was  so  much 
raised  as  to  enable  the  visiters  to  stand  upright.  After  ad- 
vancing about  thirteen  hundred  feet,  it  becomes  so  low  that  a 
man  cannot  proceed  farther  without  creeping  upon  his  hands 
and  knees,  and  then  finishes  in  a  small  aperture  scarcely  a 
foot  in  diameter,  beyond  which  it  is  not  possible  to  proceed.* 
Captain  Beechey  mentions  a  singular  fact  as  to  inscrip- 
tions found  on  the  sides  of  the  channel  into  which  he  and 
his  friends  had  adventured.  They  observed  that  the  clay, 
washed  down  in  considerable  quantities  by  the  current,  was 
occasionally  plastered  against  the  sides,  and  smoothed  very 
carefully  with  the  palm  of  the  hand.  In  this  they  thought 
they  perceived  something  like  letters,  which  upon  a  more 
minute  examination  they  discovered  to  be  sentences  in  the 
Greek  language  ;  several  of  which,  from  their  dates,  must 
have  remained  on  the  wet  clay  more  than  fifteen  hundred 
years.  The  preservation  of  these,  says  the  gallant  author, 
"  may  certainly  be  accounted  for  by  the  dampness  of  the 
place,  and  its  extreme  seclusion,  which  would  conspire  to 
prevent  the  clay  from  cracking  and  dropping  oflf,  and  from 
being  rubbed  off  by  intruders  ;  but  we  were  not  prepared  to 
meet  with  inscriptions  engraved  on  so  yielding  a  substance, 
and  certainly  not  to  find  that,  having  once  been  written,  they 
should  have  remained  on  it  down  to  the  present  day,  as  per- 
fect as  when  they  were  left  there  by  those  whose  visit  they 
were  intended  to  commemorate.  They  consist,  of  course, 
chiefly  of  a  collection  of  names,  many  of  which  are  Roman ; 
and  the  earliest  of  the  most  conspicuous  dates  which  we  re- 
marked and  copied  (for  it  would  take  whole  days  to  read  and 
copy  them  all),  were  those  of  the  reign  of  Dioclesian.  We 
could  collect  no  other  facts  from  those  which  we  read,  than 
that  a  priest  appears  to  have  oflSciated  at  the  fountain  after 

*  "  The  mouth  of  this  fountain,"  says  Delia  Cella,  "  is  very 
ingeniously  excavated,  and  is  connected  with  a  tunnel  extending 
far  into  the  heart  of  the  hill,  into  which  I  penetrated  a  few  yards, 
notwithstanding  the  assurances  of  my  guides  that  it  was  the 
usual  residence  of  malignant  spirits." 


THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS.  139 


C3rrene  became  a  Roman  colony,  whose  name  and  calling 
are  usually  written  after  the  name  of  the  visiter.  They  are, 
in  general,  very  rudely  scratched  with  a  point  of  any  kind — 
a  sword  or  knife  perhaps,  or  the  stone  of  a  ring — and  often 
with  the  point  of  the  finger.  We  observed  a  few  Arabic  in- 
scriptions among  the  rest ;  but  were  so  much  occupied  in 
reading  over  the  Greek  ones,  in  order  to  gain  some  intelli- 
gence respecting  the  fountain,  which  might  serve  to  throw 
light  upon  the  period  at  which  the  channel  was  excavated, 
or  other  questions  of  interest,  that  we  neglected  to  copy 
them.  There  is  an  appearance  in  one  of  the  Greek  inscrip- 
tions of  an  allusion  to  the  name  of  Apollo,  the  deity  to  whom 
we  suppose  this  fountain  to  have  been  sacred  ;  but  the  letters 
are  not  sufficiently  clear  to  establish  the  fact  decidedly,  al- 
though we  do  not  see  what  other  sense  could  be  given  to 
the  words  in  question  with  so  much  probability  of  being  that 
which  the  writer  intended  ;  and  it  is  plain  that  the  sentence, 
as  it  now  stands,  is  incomplete.  We  could  not  succeed  iu 
finding  any  Greek  dates  of  antiquity,  although  the  Greek 
names  are  very  numerous  ;  but  a  person  accustomed  to  the 
many  negligent  ways  of  writing  the  character,  with  plenty 
of  time  and  light  at  his  disposal,  might  probably  succeed  in 
finding  Greek  inscriptions  of  more  interest  than  we  were  able 
to  discover  in  the  mass  of  writing  here  alluded  to — a  great 
portion  of  which,  as  might  naturally  be  expected,  consists 
of  rude  scrawls  and  hasty  scratches.  That  the  fountain  con- 
tinued to  be  an  object  of  curiosity,  and  probably  of  religious 
veneration,  after  the  cession  of  the  country  to  the  Romans, 
may,  however,  be  inferred  from  what  we  have  stated  ;  and 
a  minimum  may  at  least  be  established  with  respect  to  the 
date  of  the  excavated  channel,  if  we  cannot  ascertain  the 
precise  time  of  its  formation,  or  whether  it  was  cut  at  one  or 
several  periods.  Some  hours  had  elapsed  from  the  time  of 
our  entering  to  that  of  our  reappearance  ;  and  we  really  be- 
lieve that  the  Arabs  of  the  place,  who  had  collected  them- 
selves round  the  fountain  to  see  us  come  out,  were  extremely 
disappointed  to  find  that  no  accident  had  befallen  any  one  of 
the  party,  in  spite  of  the  demons  so  confidently  believed  to 
teiunt  its  dark  and  mysterious  recesses."* 


*  Proceedings  of  the  Expedition  to  explore  the  Northern  Coast 
of  Africa,  «Stc.   By  Captain  F.  W.  Beechey,  R.N.,  F.R.S.,  p. 


140      THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS. 


Leaving  Cyrene,  the  traveller  whose  face  is  turned  towards 
Tripoli  soon  finds  himself  in  the  midst  of  beautiful  scenery, 
and  on  the  road  to  the  magnificent  plain  of  Merge,  in  which 
was  situated  the  celebrated  town  of  Barca,  the  second  in  im- 
portance of  the  whole  Pentapolis.  The  path,  deeply  marked 
with  chariot-wheels,  and  thereby  indicating  an  extensive  in- 
tercourse when  occupied  by  civilized  men,  leads  through 
valleys  for  the  most  part  well  cultivated,  and  ornamented 
with  copses  of  pine,  cedar,  laurel,  lauristinus,  cypress,  myrtle, 
box,  arbutus,  and  numerous  stately  trees,  which  were  flourish- 
ing in  the  "greatest  luxuriance.  Among  these  the  convolvulus 
and  honeysuckle  twined  themselves ;  and  red  and  white 
roses,  marigolds,  and  other  flowers,  with  a  great  variety  of 
beautiful  ferns,  were  everywhere  scattered  over  the  contigu- 
ous hills.  The  forms  of  the  landscape  were  at  the  same  time 
remarkably  picturesque  ;  and  here  and  there  a  ruin  of  some 
ancient  fortress,  towering  above  the  wood  on  the  edge  of  a 
precipice,  contributed  to  give  a  romantic  character  to  the 
scene , 

Barca,  though  perhaps  more  ancient  than  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Greek  colony,  and  unquestionably  a  place  of 
much  consequence,  can  now  hardly  be  traced  in  the  valley 
which  it  once  adorned.  Its  name,  which  is  supposed  to  be 
Phoenician,  might,  perhaps,  justify  the  opinion  of  those  who 
conjecture  that  it  owed  its  original  foundation  to  the  brother 
of  Dido,  though  Herodotus,  as  we  have  found,  states  ex- 
pressly that  it  was  built  by  the  brothers  of  Arcesilaus,  king 
of  Cyrene,  who,  alienated  from  his  court  by  some  domestic 
broils,  sought  for  themselves  a  new  residence  beyond  the 
limits  of  his  dominion.  It  was  taken  and  plundered  by  the 
Persians  under  Amasis,  who  sent  many  of  its  inhabitants  as 
prisoners  into  the  territory  of  his  master ;  but  the  decay  into 
which  it  finally  sunk  is  understood  to  have  had  its  origin  in 
the  rise  of  Ptoleraeta,  its  seaport,  now  usually  ranked  as  one 

551.  Respecting  the  allusion  to  Apollo,  Captain  Beechey  ima- 
gines "  the  words  to  have  been  t-i  uozoi  rov  iieyicr'Jov  AttoX\u)vos, 
but  the  OS  is  wanting  after  ArroXAwv,  and  the  in  ixsy'iarov ;  in 
which  latter  word  also  the  £  and  y  look  more  like  an  a  and  r. 
The  rest  of  the  inscription  is  clear  ;  and  were  we  only  to  give  it 
as  a  fragment,  t-ri  lepcoi  rov  .  .  •  larov  ATroXAaji/  .  .  there  would 
probably  be  no  doubt  raised  with  respect  to  the  manner  of  rea<i- 
jng  it." 


THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS.  141 


of  the  Five  Cities.  Strabo,  Pliny,  and  some  of  the  older 
geographers,  assert  that  the  town  just  named  was  erected 
upon  the  very  spot  where  Barca  had  stood  ;  but  Ptolemy 
•with  greater  accuracy  fixes  the  site  of  the  one  on  the  shore, 
and  of  the  other  at  some  distance  in  the  interior.  Scylax, 
in  his  Periplus,  places  the  latter  about  100  stadia  or  eight 
miles  from  its  port — a  circumstance  which,  in  the  estimation 
of  Delia  Cella,  tends  to  conciliate  the  discordant  narratives 
of  the  ancient  writers,  and  authorizes  him  to  say,  that  he 
discovered  the  ruins  of  Barca  at  a  situation  in  the  plain  of 
Merge,  about  two  hours'  walk  from  Ptolemeta,  along  a  very 
steep  path  towards  the  southeast.  These  ruins  consist  of 
tombs,  walls  fallen  dovra  and  scattered  over  a  level  speice, 
and  wells  of  veiy  great  depth,  some  of  which  still  afford  most 
excellent  water.* 

The  author  of  the  "  Expedition  to  explore  the  Northern 
Coast  of  Africa"  remarks,  that  near  the  centre  of  Merge  is  a 
ruin  now  called  Marabut  Sidi,  and  also,  that  a  few  miles  to 
the  southeast  of  ii  are  the  remains  of  an  inconsiderable 
town,  which  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  a  celebrated  she- 
reef,  but  of  waich,  it  is  added,  so  little  is  now  standing,  that 
the  plan  of  the  buildings  could  not  be  satisfactorily  ascer- 
tained. It  is  not  improbable  that  this  is  the  same  place  of 
which  the  Italian  speaks  with  so  much  confidence,  as  the 
supposed  site  of  Barca — an  inference  which  derives  no 
small  plausibility  from  an  examination  of  the  physical  proper- 
ties of  the  soil  and  the  features  of  the  surrounding  landscape, 
all  agreeing,  in  most  respects,  with  those  ascribed  to  the 
position  of  the  ancient  capitals  of  this  interesting  territory.! 

The  plaiii  of  Merge  loses  none  of  its  beauties  on  the  west- 
ern side,  where  it  borders  on  Ptolemeta,  the  Ptolemais  of  the 
Greek  authors  and  Dolmeita  of  the  modern  Arabs.  The 
vicinity  of  this  town  is  wild  and  romantic  in  the  extreme  ; 
and  on  approaching  it  through  a  deep  glen,  one  might 
imagine  himself  transported  to  the  charming  secluded  val- 
leys of  Switzerland  or  Savoy.  It  is  true,  that  in  the  Cyre- 
naica,  nature  is  on  a  less-extended  scale,  but  it  appears  in  a 
form  not  less  captivating  on  that  account ;  and  were  a  person 

*  Travels  in  Barbary,  p.  217.   Strabo,  lib.  xvii.   Plin.  Hist. 
Natur.,  lib.  v.,  c.  5, 
t  Beechey,  p.  395. 


142      THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS. 


dropped  into  the  eastern  vale  of  Ptolemeta,  he  would  never 
for  a  moment  conjecture  that  he  was  in  Africa — that  parched 
and  desert  region,  so  repulsive  to  the  fancy  of  a  European. 
This  enchanting  retreat  rises  gradually  from  the  sea,  winding 
through  forests  of  pines  and  flowering  shrubs,  which  thicken 
as  the  sides  of  the  mountains  become  higher  and  more 
abrupt,  till  it  loses  itself  in  the  precipitous  part  of  the  range 
that  bounds  it  to  the  southward,  and  presents  a  dark  barrier 
of  wood  shooting  up  into  the  clear  blue  sky.  On  reaching 
the  opposite  end  of  this  verdant  amphitheatre  a  new  scene 
appears.  Among  the  trees  which  clothe  the  declivities  of 
the  hills  are  many  handsom.e  sarcophagi  of  Greek  and  Ro- 
man workmanship,  all  executed  in  stone,  together  with  seats 
of  the  same  material  for  the  convenience  of  those  who  might 
choose  to  repair  tliither  either  to  indulge  their  grief  or  to 
gratify  their  taste. 

The  position  of  the  town,  it  is  observed,  has  been  remark- 
ably well  chosen.  In  its  front  was  the  sea,  and  on  either 
side  a  ravine,  where  are  still  observed  traces  of  fortifications 
■which  must  have  secured  its  flanks  against  any  sudden  at- 
tack ;  while  the  only  passes  by  which  it  could  be  approached 
from  the  high  ridge  on  the  south,  were  defended  by  strong 
barriers  drawn  completely  across  them.  Two  bridges  appeair 
to  have  been  thrown  over  each  of  these  hollows,  one  of 
which  is  still  somewhat  entire.  The  -streets  sloping  down 
gradually  from  the  ground  which  forms  the  foot  of  the  moun- 
tains, were  thereby  sheltered  from  the  winds  heated  by  the 
sand  of  the  Desert.  Captain  Beechey  is  of  opinion,  that 
there  is  no  place  on  the  coast  of  Northern  Africa,  between 
Tripoli  and  Ptolemeta,  which  can  be  compared  with  the  latter 
for  beauty,  convenience,  and  security  of  situation — Lebida 
alone  excepted.  He  observes,  however,  that  when  he  arrived 
there,  the  greater  part  of  the  town  was  thickly  overgrown 
with  wild  marigolds  and  chamomile,  to  the  height  of  four  or 
five  feet ;  and  patches  of  corn  were  here  and  there  growing 
even  within  the  city  walls.  The  solitude  of  the  ruins  was 
not  broken  by  animals  of  any  description,  except  a  small 
number  of  jackals  and  hyenas,  which  strayed  down  after  sun- 
set in  search  of  water,  and  a  few  owls  and  bats,  which  started 
0«t  from  their  retreats  when  they  heard  the  unwonted  sound 
of  the  human  voice.* 

*  Beechey,  p.  360, 


THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS.  143 


It  is  reckoned  that  the  walls  of  Ptolemeta,  when  entire, 
must  have  enclosed  a  quadrangle  of  18,000  English  feet  in 
circuit ;  and  the  portion  which  may  still  be  traced  from  the 
existing  remains,  surrounds  a  space  of  at  least  13,000.  A 
line  drawn  through  the  centre  of  the  city  from  north  to  south, 
would  be  about  4.800  feet  in  length,  and  that  across  it  from 
east  to  west,  would  be  about  4,400.  The  whole  circumfe- 
rence of  the  town,  accordingly,  must  have  been  somewhat 
less  than  three  English  miles  and  a  half,  its  length  rather 
short  of  a  mile,  and  its  breadth  a  little  more  than  three 
quarters. 

Approaching  from  the  west,  there  is  seen  an  insulated 
gateway  like  a  triumphal  arch,  overlooking  the  desolate  ruins. 
An  amphitheatre  and  two  theatres  are  still  visible  ;  the  latter 
are  close  to  the  relics  of  a  palace,  of  which  only  three  col- 
umns are  standing ;  and  the  former  is  constructed  in  a  large 
quarry,  in  which  the  seats  have  been  partly  excavated,  those 
portions  only  being  built  which  could  not  be  formed  in  the 
rock  itself.  The  interior  court  of  the  palace  is  still  covered 
with  tesselated  pavement,  and  beneath  it  are  very  spacious 
cisterns,  regularly  arched,  communicating  with  each  other, 
and  receiving  air  and  light  from  the  yard  above.  Bruce, 
who,  though  he  confounded  Ptolemeta  with  Teuchira,  was 
certainly  here,  imagined  that  the  pillars  belonging  to  this 
building  were  the  remains  of  an  Ionic  temple,  and  even  de- 
scribes them  as  being  executed  in  the  best  style  of  that  order. 
Later  travellers  have  questioned  the  accuracy  of  his  conclu- 
sion, and  deny  that  the  appearance  of  the  columns  gives  any 
countenance  to  the  opinion  he  entertained.  But  were  the 
resemblance  to  the  early  Ionic  much  greater  than  it  really  is, 
the  existence  of  a  Greek  inscription,  which  is  built  into  the 
basement  of  the  columns,  bearing  the  names  of  Cleopatra  and 
Ptolemy  Philometer,  together  with  another  turned  upside 
down,  mentioning  that  of  Arsinoe  conjointly  with  Ptolemy 
and  Berenice,  would  prevent  the  attributing  to  them  an  ear- 
lier date  than  the  times  of  the  sovereigns  whose  reigns  are 
commemorated .  * 

At  the  northeastern  part  of  the  town  there  is  a  structure 
of  very  large  dimensions,  the  outer  walls  of  which  are  still 
standing  to  a  considerable  height ;  but  it  is  acknowledged 


♦  Beechey,  p.  358, 


144      THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS. 


that  the  plan  of  its  interior  is  not  sufficiently  apparent  to  au- 
thorize any  conjecture  as  to  the  purpose  which  it  was  meant 
to  serve.  On  its  northern  face  are  three  large  quadrangular 
tablets  of  stone  inserted  into  the  wall,  each  five  feet  in  length 
by  four  in  breadth,  on  which  are  cut  Greek  inscriptions ;  and 
to  the  westward  and  southwestward  of  this  building  are 
many  interesting  remains  of  private  dwelling-houses,  palaces, 
and  baths. 

Signor  Delia  Cella,  from  the  inspection  of  the  style  of 
architecture  which  prevails  here,  was  induced  to  hold  the 
belief  that  Ptolemeta  must  have  had  an  Egyptian  origin,  or, 
at  least,  that  many  of  its  public  edifices  were  erected  during 
the  period  when  Cyrenaica  was  subject  to  the  rulers  of  the 
Kile.  But  it  is  maintained,  on  the  contrary,  by  Enghsh  trav- 
ellers, that  this  city  presents  in  its  ruins  nothing  which  is  not 
either  Greek  or  Roman  ;  and  that  the  profusion  of  unneces- 
sary ornament,  which  generally  distinguished  the  later  pro- 
ductions of  both  these  nations,  is  very  difierent  from  the 
manner  of  decoration  observable  in  such  remains  as  are  truly 
Egyptian.  It  is  not  asserted,  that  there  are  no  examples  of 
good  taste  at  this  ancient  city  ;  but  it  appears,  that  by  far 
the  greater  part  of  the  buildings  now  remaining  have  been 
constructed  since  it  became  a  Roman  colony,  and  that  there 
are  none  to  which  a  higher  antiquity  can  be  assigned  than 
the  period  at  which  the  country  was  occupied  by  the  Ptole- 
mies. 

At  the  western  extremity  of  the  town,  the  attention  is 
arrested  by  a  large  and  very  lofty  dormitory,  constructed  on 
a  basis  of  solid  rock,  which  has  been  purposely  insulated  from 
the  quarry  in  which  it  stands.  It  assumes  the  appearance 
of  a  stately  tower,  and  forms  a  striking  feature  in  the  sce- 
nery about  Ptolemeta,  being  seen  from  a  considerable  dis- 
tance. It  is,  indeed,  says  Delia  Cella,  a  magnificent  monu- 
ment, supported  by  a  vast  square  base  cut  in  the  side  of  the 
hill.  The  entrance  is  of  a  triangular  shape  ;  and  within  are 
several  rows  of  cells  for  the  reception  of  the  dead.  Suppo- 
sing that  Ptolemy  Physcon,  the  first  Egyptian  sovereign  of 
the  Cyrenaica,  laid  the  foundations  of  this  town,  the  doctor 
concludes  that  the  mausoleum  must  have  been  raised  by  the 
same  hands :  since  it  was  useless  for  the  kings  who  preceded 
him  to  have  tombs  here,  when  their  usual  residence  was  in 
Egypt ;  nor  is  it  likely  to  have  been  erected  after  his  time, 


THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLlS.  145 


because  it  cannot  be  supposed  that,  with  the  feelings  of  his 
nation  in  respect  to  burial-places,  he  would  submit  to  have  a 
sepulchre  undistinguished  from  those  of  his  subjects.* 

Leaving  these  wrecks  of  former  magnificence,  the  traveller 
still  enjoys  the  delight  of  most  beautiful  scenery,  as  he  makes 
his  way  to  Teuchira,  another  member  of  the  Cyrenaic  Pen- 
tapolis.  The  name  of  this  town  was  changed,  when  under 
the  dominion  of  Egypt,  to  Arsinoe  first,  and  afterward  to 
Cleopatra  ;  but  its  original  appellation  has  so  far  survived  the 
others  as  to  appear  in  Tauchira  or  Tocra,  the  term  applied 
to  it  by  the  modem  Arabs.  Its  history,  indeed,  occupies  no 
conspicuous  place,  either  in  the  annals  of  the  Greeks  or  in 
those  of  the  Moslem.  The  fortifications,  which  were  repaired 
by  the  Emperor  Justinian,  remain  in  a  good  state  of  preser- 
vation ;  being  built  of  massy  blocks  of  stone,  many  of  which, 
from  the  inscriptions  they  bear,  must  evidently  have  formed 
a  part  of  more  ancient  structures. 

Though  situated  near  the  shore,  Teuchira  'could  never 
have  been  a  seaport,  being  much  exposed  to  northern  gales, 
and  altogether  incapable  of  receiving  any  protection  from  the 
resources  of  art.  Little  now  remains  within  the  walls  to 
engage  the  attention  of  the  architect  or  antiquary  ;  for,  so 
complete  has  been  the  destruction  of  the  houses,  public  and 
private,  that  the  eye  perceives  nothing  besides  a  mass  of 
rubbish,  and  a  few  fragments  of  sculpture  lying  scattered 
around.  The  streets  appear  to  have  been  built  in  squares, 
and  to  have  crossed  each  other  at  right  angles.  One  of  these 
must  have  extended  from  the  eastern  to  the  western  gate ; 
and  towards  the  centre  of  it  there  were  found  some  columns 
and  the  remains  of  an  arch.  In  various  other  parts,  to  the 
northeast  and  southwest  in  particular,  there  are  imposing 
rehcs  of  fallen  pillars  and  entablatures,  which  have  doubtless 
belonged  to  sumptuous  buildings.  There  are  also  some 
interesting  fragments  at  the  northeastern  angle  of  the  city, 
where  part  of  a  quarry  has  been  enclosed  within  the  walls  for 
the  better  defence  of  the  place  :  a  fortress  has  likewise  been 
erected  at  the  same  point,  in  an  elevated  position,  which 
appears  to  have  been  the  stronghold  of  the  garrison.  It  is 
supposed,  that  in  former  times  there  must  have  been  numer- 
ous statues  in  Teuchira  ;  but  few  or  none  have  escaped  the 

*  Proceedings,  &c.,  p.  384.   Travels  in  Barbary,  p.  215. 
N 


146      THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS. 


barbarism  of  the  Vandals,  and  the  ignorant  fanaticism  of 
those  by  whom  they  were  succeeded  as  masters  of  the  prov- 
ince.* 

The  ruins  of  two  Christian  churches  are  still  distinctly  per- 
ceptible, in  both  of  which  the  part  devoted  to  the  altar  was 
on  the  eastern  side.  The  excavated  tombs  which,  after  the 
manner  of  oriental  cities,  abound  in  the  neighbourhood,  con- 
tain a  variety  of  Greek  inscriptions ;  though  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted, that  as  they  are  chiefly  confined  to  names  and  dates, 
their  interest  is  not  very  great.  It  is  not  unworthy  of  re- 
mark, however,  that  in  one  of  them  was  discovered  an  un- 
questionable proof  of  Egyptian  ascendency  ;  the  titles  of  the 
months  being  expressed  in  the  Coptic  language — the  vernacu- 
lar dialect  of  the  Lower  Nile.  Many  of  these  caverns,  we  are 
told,  and  probably  the  most  ancient,  are  now  buried  under  a 
mass  of  drifted  sand  ;  and  among  them  it  is  not  unlikely  that 
some  notices  might  be  detected  both  entertaining  and  in- 
structive ;  though  such  as  were  examined  did  not  present 
any  thing  of  sufficient  importance  to  remunerate  the  toil  and 
expense  necessary  to  open  a  passage  into  their  interior.  They 
appear,  indeed,  extremely  rude  compared  with  those  of  Gy- 
rene and  Egypt,  and  the  inscriptions  are,  for  the  most  part, 
very  imperfectly  cut.  In  general,  they  have  only  one  cham- 
ber, three  sides  of  which  are  in  some  instances  occupied  by 
niches  cut  into  the  wall  for  the  rece]>tion  of  bodies.  In  some 
of  the  tombs  there  are  no  places  discernible  for  human  re- 
mains— a  circumstance  from  which  an  inference  has  been 
drawn  that  the  corpses  must  have  been  burnt,  and  only  the 
ashes  reserved  for  the  funereal  mansion.  There  is  no  trace 
of  embalming  to  be  discovered  either  at  Teuchira  or  Ptole- 
meta ;  no  fragment  of  a  cinerary  urn,  nor  of  vases  of  any 
description.  The  dampness  of  the  climate  in  the  winter 
season  would,  no  doubt,  contribute  very  materially  to  the 
destruction  of  all  these  remains  ;  but  the  chief  cause,  un- 
questionably, why  they  have  so  entirely  disappeared,  is  con- 
nected with  the  usages  of  the  Arabs,  who,  in  the  rainy  sea- 
son, convert  these  dwellings  of  mortality  into  residences  for 
themselves  and  their  cattle. t 

On  the  road  to  Bengazi,  the  ancient  Berenice,  there  are 
many  tokens  of  civihzation  and  improvement,  now  long  neg- 


Beechey,  p.  371. 


t  Ibid.,  p.  373. 


THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS.  147 


lected  by  the  barbarian  inhabitants.  Walls,  arches,  door- 
ways, and  pieces  of  broken  columns,  attest  the  industry  and 
skill  of  former  ages,  in  places  where  rank  grass  and  neglected 
shrubs  now  harbour  numerous  serpents.  At  Birsis  and 
Mably — under  the  latter  of  which  denominations  the  term 
Neapolis  is  supposed  to  be  concealed — there  are  various  re- 
mains of  buildings  which  establish  the  probability  that  flour- 
ishing towns  once  existed  there,  and  enjoyed  the  benefits  of 
an  enlightened  government.  The  country  around,  too,  is 
described  as  at  once  fertile  and  lovely,  consisting  of  a  plain 
expanding  between  the  mountains  and  the  shore,  covered 
with  flowers,  and  presenting  every  symptom  of  an  inexhaust- 
ible Soil. 

As  Bengazi  itself  stretches  still  further  towards  the  north, 
the  extent  of  the  level  ground  between  the  sea  and  the  hills 
is  much  increased,  constituting  an  uncommonly  fine  district, 
capable  of  supporting  a  large  population.  But,  though  the 
situation  be  excellent,  the  town  itself  is  equally  destitute  of 
elegance  and  comfort.  The  houses  are  built  after  the  manner 
usually  followed  by  the  Arabs,  with  rough  stones  and  mud  ; 
and  in  the  wet  season,  accordingly,  nothing  is  more  common 
than  to  see  them  melt  down  into  a  heap  of  moist  earth. 
\Mien  a  cabin  falls,  it  is  generally  left  in  a  state  of  ruin,  and 
the  family  remove  to  some  other  spot,  without  troubling 
themselves  farther  about  it ;  the  consequence  is,  we  are  told, 
that  the  streets  are  often  nearly  blocked  up  by  mounds  of 
this  nature,  which  form  in  winter  accumulations  of  mire,  and 
in  the  dry  weather  scatter  clouds  of  dust  in  the  eyes  of  the 
passengers.  There  is,  however,  nothing  peculiar  to  Bengazi 
in  the  scene  now  described,  for  every  Arab  town  and  village 
presents,  more  or  less,  a  similar  spectacle. 

With  so  many  objects  to  attract  them,  it  cannot  be  sur- 
prising that  such  a  place  should  be  proverbial  for  flies  ;  and, 
in  fact,  we  find  travellers  asserting  that  among  the  various 
annoyances  with  which  the  place  abounds,  these  are,  perhaps, 
the  most  serious  of  any,  or,  at  all  events,  those  from  which  it 
is  least  possible  to  escape.  They  follow  you  everywhere, 
settle  on  any  part  of  the  arms,  legs,  and  body,  which  the  heat 
of  the  weather  obliges  you  to  leave  uncovered  ;  creep  obsti- 
nately into  the  corners  of  the  eyes  and  up  the  nostrils,  into 
the  hollows  of  the  ears,  and  often  fly  down  the  throat,  nearly 
choking  you,  should  the  mouth  happen  to  be  open.  At 


148     THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS. 


meals,  every  part  of  the  dishes  and  their  contents  are  cov- 
ered with  ihem  as  soon  as  thev  are  produced  ;  and  every 
fluid  becomes  a  trap  for  as  many  of  these  creatures  as  can 
crowd  upon  its  surface.  In  short,  says  Captain  Beechey, 
there  is  literally  no  riding  or  walking,  no  reading  or  writing, 
no  eating  or  resting  one's  self  in  any  part  of  Bengazi  in  com- 
fort for  them  ;  and  if  at  night  they  take  up  their  accustomed 
position  on  the  ceiling,  and  give  place  to  the  fleas  and  mos- 
chetoes,  the  first  dawn  of  morning  finds  them  on  the  wing, 
and  all  alive  to  recommence  their  operations.* 

The  harbour,  which  was  at  one  time  safe  and  capacious, 
cannot  now  admit  vessels  drawing  more  than  seven  or  eight 
feet  of  water  ;  while  the  fortifications,  originally  constructed 
to  defend  it,  are  so  miserably  decayed,  that  when  a  British 
ship  lately  approached  it,  the  Bey  requested  that  the  usual 
salutation  might  be  dispensed  with,  lest  the  concussion  should 
bring  down  the  walls.  lis  chief  protection,  therefore,  is 
supphed  by  a  reef  of  rocks,  which  narrows  the  passage  so 
much  that  no  stranger  can  enter  it  without  the  aid  of  a  pilot. 

There  is  not  a  single  place  of  amusement  or  public  resort 
in  any  part  of  this  gloomy  town  ;  its  inhaoitants  idling  or 
sleeping  avvay  the  greater  portion  of  their  time,  without  ap- 
pearing to  entertain  the  slightest  desire  of  improving  their 
condition  or  of  enlivening  the  monotony  of  their  pursuits.  As 
the  religion  and  laziness  of  a  Turk  equally  prompt  him  to 
depend  more  upon  the  interposition  of  Providence  than  upon 
his  own  exertions,  he  uses  no  means,  and  rarely  has  recourse 
to  any  precautions  ;  and  hence,  centuries  after  centuries  may 
pass  away  without  witnessing  any  advancement  in  knowl- 
edge, any  redress  of  grievances,  or  any  progress  in  the  arts 
which  bless  and  adorn  human  life.  Bengazi  is  said  to  con- 
tain about  2,000  inhabitants,  a  large  proportion  of  whom  are 
Jews  and  negro  slaves  ;  but  the  number  of  persons  actually 
residing  in  the  place  is  continually  varying,  owing  to  the  cir- 
cumstance that  many  remove  to  the  country  whenever  the 
weather  permits,  to  establish  themselves  in  tents  made  of 
palm-trees.  The  Hebrews  arc  a  persecuted  race,  but  uni- 
formly steady  in  the  pursuit  of  riches.  As  usually  happens 
in  Mohammedan  states,  they  are  the  principal  merchants  and 
tradesmen  ;  and  their  unremitted  industry  alone  enables  them 


*  Proceedings,  &c.,  p.  285-287. 


THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS.  149 


to  meet  the  heavy  exactions  which  are  made  upon  their  prop- 
erty by  the  adherents  of  the  prophet. 

The  site  now  occupied  by  this  dirty  town  was,  as  we  have 
already  said,  formerly  covered  by  Berenice,  and  in  still  more 
ancient  times  by  Hesperis  ;  but  of  these  famed  cities  very  few 
remains  now  appear  above  ground,  to  interest  the  sculptor, 
the  architect,  or  the  antiquary.  Tliis  total  absence  of  col- 
umns and  statues  is  ascribed  to  a  common  practice  of  the 
Arabs,  who,  in  building  their  huts,  break  into  small  pieces 
such  of  the  stones  belonging  to  the  old  edifices  as  are  too  large 
to  suit  their  purpose.  Many  a  noble  frieze  and  cornice,  and 
many  a  well-proportioned  capital,  has  been  crushed  under  the 
hammers  of  these  barbarians.  Extensive  ruins  are  still 
found  about  Bengazi,  a  little  under  the  surface  of  the  ground  ; 
and,  accordingly,  whenever  a  house  is  to  be  erected,  the  pro- 
prietor, in  order  to  obtain  materials,  has  nothing  more  to  do 
than  to  send  a  few  men  to  excavate  in  the  neighbourhood, 
where  they  are  sure  to  find  a  various  and  abundant  quarry. 
On  the  beach,  to  the  northeastward  of  the  village,  where  a 
mound  twenty  or  thirty  feet  in  height  is  formed  of  the  debris 
of  the  original  town,  coins  and  gems  are  frequently  washed 
down  in  rainy  weather  ;  and,  after  storms  especially,  the  in- 
habitants repair  to  the  shore,  and  sift  the  earth  which  falls 
from  this  bank,  in  search  of  a  treasure  on  which  Europeans 
have  taught  them  to  place  a  high,  and  in  some  instances  an 
imaginary  value.* 
I  Perhaps  the  most  interesting  objects  in  this  romantic  vi- 
1  cinity  are  the  celebrated  Gardens  of  the  Hesperides,  so  long 
[  famed  in  song,  arid  so  often  described  as  the  only  earthly 
j  paradise  left  to  the  possession  of  the  human  race.  Along 
;  the  shore  there  are  some  natural  chasms  or  ravines,  covered 
with  beautiful  shrubs  and  trees,  and  having  at  the  bottom  a 
level  surface  of  excellent  soil,  several  hundred  feet  in  extent ; 
so  that  a  person  walking  over  the  country  comes  suddenly 
j  upon  a  delightful  orchard,  blooming  in  secret,  and  in  the 
greatest  luxuriance.  The  effect  of  these  secluded  spots, 
protected,  as  it  were,  from  the  intrusion  of  mankind  by  the 
steepness  and  depth  of  the  barriers  which  enclose  thern^  is 
singular  and  pleasing  in  the  extreme. 

This  situation  corresponds  perfectly  with  the  description 

*  Beeehey,  p.  316 
N  2  .. 


150     THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS. 


of  the  Hesperides  given  by  Scylax,  who  represents  them  as  a 
sequestered  spot  of  about  two  stadia,  or  the  fifth  part  of  a  mile, 
across,  filled  with  fruit-trees  of  various  kmds,  and  inaccessi- 
ble on  all  sides.  He  farther  relates,  that  their  distance  from 
the  port  of  Barca  was  620  stadia,  or  rather  more  than  sixty 
of  our  miles — a  space  which  agrees  very  well  with  the  jour- 
ney from  Ptolemeta,  the  harbour  to  which  he  alluded.  But 
all  doubt  asjo  the  locahty  ought  to  be  removed  by  the  fact 
that  Bengazi  was  once  called  Hesperides,  or  Hesperis — a 
circumstance  which  is  attested  by  the  high  authority  of  Pto- 
lemy, the  geographer,  Pliny,  and  Ste})hanus.  Not  far  from 
Berenice,  writes  the  Roman  naturalist,  is  the  river  Lethon, 
and  the  sacred  grove  where  the  Gardens  of  the  Hesperides 
are  said  to  be  placed.* 

The  first  position  of  these  happy  retreats  was  supposed  to 
be  at  the  western  extremity  of  Libya,  being  then  the  farthest 
boundary  of  human  knowledge  in  the  direction  of  the  setting, 
sun.  The  ideas  with  which  they  were  always  associated — 
a  circuit  of  blooming  verdure  amid  the  Desert — were  calcu- 
lated to  make  a  deep  impression  on  the  lively  fancy  of  the 
Greeks.  There  was  suggested  also  the  image  of  islands, 
which  ever  after  adhered  to  these  visionary  creations.  As 
the  first  spot  became  frequented,  it  was  soon  stripped  of  its 
fabled  beauty ;  but  as  so  pleasing  a  notion  was  not  to  be 
easily  relinquished,  another  was  quickly  found  for  it  ;  and 
every  traveller,  as  he  discovered  a  new  portion  of  that  fertile 
and  beautiful  coast,  fondly  imagined  that  he  had  at  length 
arrived  at  the  long-sought-for  Islands  of  the  Blest.  In  the 
end,  w^hen  the  continent  had  been  examined  in  vain,  they 
were  transferred  to  the  ocean  which  washes  its  western 
shores.  The  Canaries,  accordingly,  having  never  been  passed 
nor  even  fully  explored,  continued  to  be  the  Fortunate  Islands, 
not  from  any  peculiar  felicity  of  soil  or  climate,  but  merely  be- 
cause distance  and  imperfect  knowledge  left  full  scope  to 
poetical  fancy.  We  find  Horace  painting  their  delights  and 
the  happiness  of  their  possessors  in  the  most  glowing  lan- 
guage ;  describing  them  as  a  refuge  still  left  for  mortals  from 
that  troubled  and  imperfect  enjoyment  which  they  were  doom- 
ed to  experieiTtce  in  every  other  quarter  of  this  terrestrial  globe.t 

*  Ptol.  Africa?,  tab.  iii.  Hist.  Nat.,  lib.  v.,  c.  5. 
t  Murray's  Account  of  Discoveries  and  Travels  in  Africa, 
voL  L,  p.  8.   Horat.,  lib.  l,  ode  10;  lib.  iv.,  ode  8.   Epod.  17. 


THE  CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS.  151 


As  Captain  Beechey  is  entitled  to  the  honour  of  having 
discovered  or  identified  the  pleasant  hermitage  mentioned  by 
ancient  authors,  we  give  the  concluding  part  of  the  narrative 
in  his  own  words  : — "  We  have  shown,"*  says  he,  "  that  the 
nature  of  the  ground  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Berenice  (or 
Bengazi)  is  consistent  with  the  account  of  Scylax  ;  and  that 
places  like  those  which  he  has  so  minutely  described,  are  ac- 
tually to  be  found  in  the  territory  where  he  has  laid  down  the 
gardens.  This  singular  formation,  so  far  as  we  have  seen,  is 
also  pecuhar  to  the  country  in  question  ;  and  we  know  of  no 
other  part  of  the  coast  of  Northern  Africa  where  the  same 
peculiarities  of  soil  are  observable.  We  do  not  mean  to 
point  out  any  one  of  these  subterranean  gardens  as  that  which 
is  described  in  the  passage  quoted  from  Scylax  ;  for  we  know 
of  no  one  which  will  correspond,  in  point  of  extent,  to  the 
garden  which  this  writer  has  mentioned  ;  all  of  those  which 
we  saw  were  considerably  less  than  a  fifth  of  a  mile  in  diam- 
eter ;  and  the  places  of  this  nature  which  would  best  agree 
with  the  dimensions  in  question,  are  now  filled  with  water 
sufficiently  fresh  to  be  drinkable,  and  take  the  form  of  ro- 
mantic little  lakes.  Scarcely  any  two  of  the  gardens  we  met 
with,  however,  were  of  the  same  depth  and  extent ;  and  we 
have  no  reason  to  conclude,  that  because  we  saw  none  that 
were  large  enough  to  be  fixed  upon  for  the  Garden  of  the 
Hesperides,  as  it  is  described  in  the  statement  of  Scylax, 
there  is  therefore  no  place  of  the  dimensions  required  among 
those  which  escaped  our  notice  ;  particularly  as  the  singular 
formation  we  allude  to  continues  to  the  foot  of  the  Cyrenaic 
range,  which  is  fourteen  miles  distant  in  the  nearest  part 
from  Bengazi.  At  any  rate,  under  the  circumstances  which 
are  already  before  the  reader,  it  will  not  be  considered  a 
visionary  or  a  hastily-formed  assumption,  if  we  say  that  the 
position  of  these  celebrated  spots,  long  the  subject  of  eager 
and  doubtful  inquiry,  may  be  laid  down  with  some  probability 
in  this  neighbourhood.  The  remarkable  peculiarities  of  this 
part  of  Northern  Africa  correspond  (in  our  opinion)  suffi- 
ciently well  with  the  authorities  already  quoted  to  justify  the 
conclusion  we  have  drawn  from  an  inspection  of  the  ground, 
and  to  induce  us  to  place  the  Gardens  of  the  Hesperides  in 
some  one  or  other  of  the  recesses  described,  rather  than  in 


Proceedings,  &c.,  p.  325. 


152     THE   CYRENAICA  AND  PENTAPOLIS. 


any  of  the  oases  of  the  Desert,  as  suggested  by  M.  Gossellin 
and  others." 

The  variety  of  "position  assigned  by  ancient  writers  to  these 
fairy  scenes,  is  referrible,  perhaps,  not  to  any  precise  geo- 
graphical data,  but  to  the  operation  of  certain  secret  propen- 
sities deeply  lodged  in  the  human  breast.  There  arises  in- 
voluntarily in  the  heart  of  man  a  longing  after  forms  of  being, 
happier  and  more  beautiful  than  any  presented  by  the  crea- 
tion before  him — bright  scenes,  which  he  seeks  and  never 
finds  in  the  circuit  of  reahexistence.  But  imagination  easily 
creates  them,  in  that  dim  boundary  which  separates  the  known 
from  the  unknown  world.  In  the  first  discoveries  of  any 
such  region,  novelty  usually  produces  an  exalted  state  of  the 
imagination  and  passions,  under  the  influence  of  which  every 
object  is  painted  in  brighter  colours  than  those  of  nature. 
Nor  does  the  illusion  cease  when  a  fuller  examination  proves 
that,  in  the  place  thus  assigned,  no  such  beings  or  objects 
exist.  The  soul,  as  long  as  it  remains  possible,  still  clings 
to  its  fond  chimeras.  It  quickly  transfers  them  to  the  yet 
unknown  region  beyond  ;  and,  when  driven  from  thence,  dis- 
covers others  still  more  remote  in  which  it  can  take  refuge. 
Thus  we  observe  these  enchanted  spots  successively  retreat- 
ing before  the  progress  of  discovery,  yet  finding,  in  the  far- 
thest advance  that  ancient  knowledge  ever  made,  some  more 
distant  position  to  which  they  could  fly.* 

Having  laid  before  our  readers  all  the  more  interesting 
notices  which  respect  this  fine  country,  originally  colonized 
by  the  Greeks,  and  long  possessed  by  the  subjects  of  Rome 
and  Grand  Cairo,  we  proceed  to  give  a  brief  account  of  the 
provincial  capital  itself  and  its  more  immediate  dependances. 

*  Gossellin,  Geographie  Ancienne.  Malte  Brun,  Hisioire  de 
la  Geographie,  quoted  in  Historical  Account  of  Discoveries  and 
Travels  in  Africa,  vol.  i.,  p.  7. 


TRIPOLI,  ETC. 


153 


CHAPTER  VI. 

Tripoli  and  its  immediate  Dependances. 

Ancient  Limits  of  the  Pachalic — Great  Syrtis  seldom  visited — 
Delia  Cella  and  the  Beecheys — Ghimines — Forts  and  Ruins — 
Tabilba — Remauis  of  a  Castle — Curious  Arch — Braiga,  a 
Seaport,  and  strongly  garrisoned — Thought  to  be  the  ancient 
Automala — Sachrin,  the  southern  Point  of  the  Gulf— Shape 
of  the  Bay — Cato,  Lucan,  and  Sallust — Muktar — Hudia — 
Linoof-^Mahiriga — Fortresfe — Tower  of  Bengerwad— Suppo- 
sed to  be  that  of  Euphrantas — Charax — Medinet  Sultan — 
Shuaisha— Hamed  Garoosh— Zaffran — Habits  of  the  Natives 
— Their  Dress — The  Aspis  of  Ancient  Whters — Giraif— Cape 
Triero — Mesurata — Salt-marshes — Gulf  of  Zuca — Lebida— 
Ruins — Narrative  of  Captain  Smyth — Tagiura — Fertihty— 
Tripoli — Appearance — Tripoli  believed  to  be  of  Moorish  ori- 
gin— Old  Tripoli  destroyed  by  the  Saracens — Opinion  of  Leo 
Africanus— Favourable  Judgment  formed  by  Mr.  Blaqui^re — 
Moral  Character  of  the  Tripoliries — Statement  by  the  Author 
of  TuUy's  Letters — Description  of  Tripoli  by  Captain  Bee- 
chey — Pacha's  Castle — Mosques — Triumphal  Arch — Inhabi- 
tants divided  into  Moors  and  Arabs — Manner  in  which  the 
Turks  spend  their  time — Peculiar  Mode  of  conducting  Con- 
versation—Bedouins— Their  Dress  and  Manners — The  Pia- 
nura  or  Fertile  Plain — Visit  to  the  Castle — Magnificence  of 
the  Apartments— Pacha's  principal  Wife — Mode  of  Saluta- 
tion— Refreshments — History  of  Tripoli — Knights  of  Malta — 
Rajoot  Rais— Admiral  Blake — Sir  John  Narborough — Major 
Eaton — Revolution  by  Hamet  the  Great — The  Atrocities 
which  attended  it — Fezzan — Siwah — Augila — Marabouts — 
Scene  witnessed  by  Captain  Lyon — Drunkenness — Langua- 
ges spoken  at  Tripoli. 

The  proper  limits  of  this  pachalic,  towards  the  east,  might 
perhaps  be  fixed  with  perfect  accuracy  at  the  border  of  the 
desert  which  separates  it  from  Cyrenaica  and  the  minor  de- 
pendances of  Egypt.  It  is  trne  that  the  territory  of  Barca, 
including  all  the  fine  lands  which  lie  along  the  coast,  is  at 
present  subjected  to  the  ruler  of  Tripoli,  whose  authority  is 
partially  acknowledged  to  the  very  extremity  of  Marmarica. 


154 


TRIPOLI  AND  ITS 


But  it  is  not  less  manifest,  at  the  same  time,  that  the  ancient 
boundaries  of  the  Carthaginian  State,  of  which  the  three 
cities,  Orea,  Leptis,  and  Sabrata,  made  a  part,  did  not  extend 
beyond  the  remoter  verge  of  the  Great  Syrtis — the  point 
marked  by  the  romantic  legend  of  the  Philseni — where  the 
provinces  governed  by  Cyrene  may  be  conceived  to  have 
begun. 

The  dreary  space  which  intervenes  between  the  eastern 
termination  of  the  Gulf  and  Cape  Mesurata  has  been  seldom 
trodden  in  modern  times  by  the  foot  of  a  European.  Delia 
Cella,  the  medical  gentleman  whose  work  has  been  so  often 
quoted,  attended  the  son  of  the  pacha  on  an  expedition  to  the 
Bay  of  Bomba  ;  accompanying  the  army  during  the  whole 
of  their  march  across  the  Desert,  and  sharing  deeply  in  the 
sufferings  and  privations  which  are  inseparable  from  such  an 
undertaking.  Captain  Beechey,  also,  with  his  brother  and 
two  other  officers,  performed,  at  a  somewhat  later  period,  a 
similar  journey  ;  having  been  appointed  by  the  Admiralty  to 
examine  the  line  of  coast  from  Tripoli  to  Derna,  and  if  pos- 
sible to  Alexandria.  Although  the  travellers,  in  both  in- 
stances, proceeded  from  west  to  east,  we  shall,  according  to 
the  plan  already  adopted,  arrange  our  details  as  if  advancing 
from  Bengazi  towards  the  capital ;  after  which,  conceiving 
that  the  connexion  with  Egypt,  on  which  we  have  founded 
our  scheme,  shall  have  been  sufficiently  consulted,  we  will 
commence  our  description  at  the  seat  of  each  respective  gov- 
ernment. 

Ghimines,  then,  is  the  first  station  southward  of  Bengazi 
which  presents  any  thing  worthy  of  attention.  There  are 
found  the  remains  of  several  ancient  forts,  some  of  which 
must  have  been  constructed  on  a  peculiar  plan.  They  are 
built  of  large  stones  of  very  unequal  size,  put  together  with- 
out any  cement,  and  made  to  fit  into  one  another  in  the 
manner  which  has  been  called  Cyclopian.  Their  form  is  a 
square  with  the  angles  rounded  off,  and  some  of  them  are 
filled  with  earth,  well  beaten  down,  to  within  six  or  eight  feet 
of  the  top,  the  upper  part  of  the  wall  being  left  as  a  parapet 
to  the  terrace  thus  composed  in  the  interior.  In  the  centre 
of  this  artificial  mound  are  sometimes  observed  the  traces 
of  buildings,  the  roofs  of  which  must  have  been  higher  than 
the  outer  walls  ;  and  a  space  seems  in  all  cases  to  have  been 
left  between  these  central  chambers  and  the  parapet,  in  which 


IMMEDIATE  DEPENDANCES.  155 


the  garrison  might  place  themselves  when  defending  the  fort. 
An  opening  like  a  window  was  noticed  in  one  of  the  castles, 
which  may  have  been  used  for  drawing  up  those  who  entered 
it,  as  there  was  no  other  inlet  whatever.  The  most  of  these 
structures  have  been  surrounded  with  a  trench,  on  the  outer 
side  of  which  there  is  generally  a  low  wall  strongly  built  with 
large  stones.  Some  of  them,  which  have  been  excavated  in 
the  solid  rock,  are  of  considerable  depth  and  width  ;  and,  in 
one  instance,  chambers  were  observed  carefully  dug  in  the 
sides  of  the  trench.  In  this  case,  the  ditch  is  about  twenty- 
five  feet  broad  and  fifteen  deep,  the  fortress  itself  being  125 
in  length  and  ninety  in  width.  The  form  is  quadrangular ; 
and  in  the  centre  of  each  of  its  sides  is  a  projection,  sloping 
outward  from  the  top,  twenty  feet  in  length  by  twelve,  which 
appears  to  have  served  at  once  as  a  tower  and  buttress. 

No  object  of  much  consequence  appears  between  "Ghimi- 
nes  and  Tabilba,  supposed  to  be  the  site  of  what  Ptolemy 
calls  the  "  Maritimae  Stationes."  Here  are  found  the  remains 
of  a  castle  ;  and  on  the  hill  just  above  it  are  the  ruins  of  a 
very  strong  fortification  connected  with  it  by  a  wall  five  feet 
thick,  carried  quite  round  the  precipice  on  which  it  is  erected. 
This  was  defended  on  the  side  towards  the  land  by  a  fosse 
thirty  feet  wide,  dug  out  in  the  solid  stone.  The  interior  of 
the  rock  on  which  the  castle  stands  has  been  excavated  into 
numerous  galleries  and  chambers,  which  seem  to  have  an- 
swered the  purpose  of  barracks.  In  one  of  these  are  several 
Greek  inscriptions,  written  with  ink  on  the  walls,  in  what 
may  be  called  the  running-hand  of  the  Lower  Empire.  In 
other  parts  were  tombs  likewise  fabricated  in  the  solid  mass, 
some  of  which  were  entered  by  a  quadrangular  well,  after  the 
manner  of  those  common  in  Egypt.  In  the  wall  fronting  the 
south  was  observed,  among  the  rubT^ish  which  encumbered 
jt,  part  of  an  arch,  constructed  without  a  keystone,  of  square 
blocks  arranged  so  as  to  touch  each  other  at  the  bottom,  and 
having  the  interstices  above  filled  with  a  very  durable  cement. 
Examples  of  similar  arches  were  found  in  various  parts  of  the 
Syrtis,  as  well  as  of  the  Cyrenaica,  denoting  the  great  an- 
tiquity of  the  buildings  to  which  they  are  attached. 

Proceeding  along  the  coast,  amid  various  ruins  and  salt- 
water lakes,  the  traveller  reaches  Braiga,  a  seaport  town. 
Judging  from  the  remains  of  several  spacious  fortresses,  we 
aaay  conclude  that  this  at  one  time  must  have  been  a  strong- 


156     ■  TRIPOLI  AND  ITS 


ly-garrisoned  place.  In  a  subterranean  chamber  were  seen 
the  representation  of  a  ship  and  of  a  palm-tree,  sketched  on 
the  surface  of  the  cement,  which  is  still  as  smooth  and  per- 
fect as  the  day  it  was  first  wrought.  The  ground  about  this 
excavation,  and  indeed  the  whole  neighbourhood,  w^as  strewed 
with  fragments  of  pottery  and  glass ;  among  which  was  picked 
up  a  brass  coin  of  Augustus  Caesar  in  very  good  condition. 
On  the  contiguous  hills,  too,  are  the  vestiges  of  sundry  forts 
of  the  usual  quadrangular  form,  and  constructed  of  large 
stones  very  regularly  shaped — all  proving  that  Braiga  must 
have  been  a  military  station  of  considerable  importance.  Cap- 
tain Beechey  is  disposed  to  identify  it  with  the  Automala  of 
Strabo,  although  he  admits  that  its  position  does  not  pre- 
cisely coincide  with  the  description  given  by  the  great  geog- 
rapher, who  places  it  at  the  most  southern  point  of  the  gulf, 
from  which  it  is  now  distant  a  few  miles.  But,  except  this 
town,  as  he  justly  remarks,  there  are  no  ruins  on  that  part 
of  the  coast  which  can  be  supposed  to  represent  the  ancient 
Automala,  the  remains  of  which  could  not,  in  any  circum- 
stances, have  entirely  disappeared. 

Sachrin  is,  properly  speaking,  the  bottom  of  the  gulf ;  and 
few  parts  of  the  world,  we  are  told,  could  present  so  truly 
desolate  and  wretched  an  appearance  as  its  shores  in  this 
neighbourhood  are  found  to  exhibit.  Marsh,  sand,  and  barren 
rocks  alone  meet  the  eye,  and  not  a  single  human  being,  or 
a  trace  of  vegetation,  is  to  be  seen  in  any  direction.  The 
stillness  of  the  night  was  not  broken  even  by  the  bowlings 
of  the  jackal  or  hyena ;  "  and  it  seemed,"  says  Captain 
Beechey,  "  as  if  all  the  animated  portion  of  creation  had 
agreed  in  the  utter  hopelessness  of  inhabiting  it  to  any  advan- 
tage." 

The  form  assumed  by  the  southern  point  of  the  gulf,  or 
Greater  Syrtis,  is  very  different  from  that  commonly  repre- 
sented in  maps.  Instead  of  the  narrow  inlet  in  which  it  is 
usually  made  to  terminate,  there  was  seen  a  wide  extent  of 
coast,  sweeping  due  east  and  west,  with  as  little  variation  as 
possible.  The  chart  ascribed  to  Ptolemy  is  the  only  one 
extant  which  approaches  to  any  thing  like  the  actual  line  of 
the  shore  ;  and  every  step  which  modern  geographers  have 
receded  from  this  authority,  has  been  a  step  farther  from  the 
truth.  It  is  deserving  of  remark,  however,  that  though  the 
shape  of  the  bay  at  its  southern  extremity  has  been  very 


IMMEDIATE  DEPENDANCES.  157 


I  incorrectly  laid  down  by  recent  cosmographers,  the  latitude 
assigned  to  it  is  perfectly  exact.  Very  erroneous  notions, 
too,  have  been  inherited  from  the  ancients  in  regard  to  the 
nature  of  the  soil  adjoining  the  Syrtis.  Cato  is  described  as 
leading  his  army  through  deep  and  burning  sands  ;  and  Lucan 
has  given  so  exaggerated  an  account  of  the  same  march,  as 
to  make  his  description  almost  wholly  imaginary.  Sallust 
also,  in  his  story  of  the  Philaeni,  speaks  of  the  level  and  sandy 
plain  in  which  their  monuments  were  erected,  without  either 
river  or  mountain  by  which  the  boundaries  of  the  two  coun- 
tries might  be  marked.  But  we  are  assured,  that  there  is 
not  now  any  plain  of  this  description  at  the  bottom  of  the 
gulf;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  that  though  there  is  no  river, 
there  is  a  range  of  hills  not  less  than  six  hundred  feet  in 
height.  These  discrepances,  however,  must  not  be  held 
sufficient  to  invalidate  the  testimony  of  respectable  authors. 
On  a  low  coast,  composed  of  loose  materials,  and  often  beaten 
by  a  high  sea  and  violent  gales,  there  will  necessarily  occur 
many  changes  of  outline  ;  the  shallows  are  filled  up,  and  new 
inroads  are  made  upon  the  land ;  and  hence  the  narrow 
wedge-formed  inlet,  mentioned  by  Strabo  as  characterizing 
■the  bottom  of  the  gulf,  may  have  long  since  disappeared, 
either  owing  to  the  Mediterranean  having  advanced  upon  its 
southern  shore,  as  is  found  elsewhere  to  be  the  case,  or  by 
the  action  of  the  desert-winds  loaded  with  clouds  of  sand. 

Muktar,  the  next  place  in  succession,  is  esteemed  the 
boundary  of  the  districts  of  Sert  and  Barca,  the  line  being 
marked,  though  rather  indistinctly,  by  small  piles  of  loose 
stones.  It  seems  still  to  enjoy  a  trade  in  sulphur,  which  is 
brought  to  the  coast  from  mines  situated  in  the  Desert,  and 
finally  conveyed  to  Braiga,  where  it  is  exported.  The  route 
of  the  traveller  in  this  desolate  land  presents  very  little  va- 
riety, being  confined  to  a  range  of  sand-hills  and  salt-lakes, 
which  invite  no  inhabitants,  rational  or  irrational,  to  disturb 
the  solitude.  Passing  Hudia  and  Linoof,  the  weary  pilgrim 
arrives  at  Mahiriga,  where  are  again  discovered  the  vestiges 
of  civilization.  A  quadrangular  building,  similar  to  those  al- 
ready described,  occupies  the  summit  of  an  eminence  near 
the  sea.  No  traces  remain  of  its  external  roof,  but  part  of 
an  arched  one  is  still  visible  on  the  ground-floor  within, 
which,  from  its  inferior  workmanship,  may  be  attributed  to  a 
later  age.    Marks  of  walls  are  also  seen  in  the  inside  of  the 


158 


TRIPOLI  AND  ITS 


building,  which  have  formerly  divided  it  into  chambers ; 
though  in  this  case,  too,  the  execution  is  extremely  rude,  and 
denotes  a  very  low  condition  of  the  arts.  This  fortress  is 
surrounded  by  a  wall  about  a  yard  in  thickness,  enclosing  a 
considerable  area ;  but  there  is  nothing  resembling  a  trench. 
Neither  is  there  any  appearance  of  an  entrance  in  the  whole 
exterior  of  the  structure,  the  height  of  which,  even  to  the  top 
of  the  turrets,  is  now  not  more  than  fifteen  or  twenty  feet. 

At  the  Cape  of  Bengerwad  is  a  tower^  which  Captain 
Beechey  imagines  must  be  that  of  Euphrantas,  mentioned  by 
Strabo  ;  and  at  no  great  distance  are  certain  ruins,  which  he 
is  inclined  to  identify  with  the  town  of  Charax,  commemora- 
ted by  the  same  geographer.  Owing  to  the  cliff  on.  which  it 
stood  having  given  way,  the  greater  part  of  the  building  has 
fallen  down  upon  the  beach ;  but  though,  in  consequence  of 
this  accident,  little  of  the  plan  can  be  satisfactorily  made  out, 
it  is  clear  that  it  must  have  been  a  stronghold  of  no  small 
importance.  On  both  sides  it  would  command  an  extensive 
view  of  the  sea,  and  it  still  overlooks  many  remains  of  edifices 
scattered  over  the  plain  in  its  rear.  This  situation,  indeed, 
appears  so  well  calculated,  both  by  nature  and  art,  for  the 
establishment  of  a  boundary-lme,  that  the  fort  is  regarded  as 
having  been  the  main  defence  on  the  common  limits  of  Car- 
thage and  Cyrene  in  the  time  of  the  Ptplemies.  In  fact, 
the  tower  of  Euphrantas  is  so  described  by  Strabo  ;  and  .pf 
all  the  ruined  fortresses  on  this  portion  of  the  Greater  Syrtis, 
no  one  accords  so  aptly  with  the  delineation  of  that  learned 
author,  as  the  lofty  structure  ^t  Bengerwad.  Still,  so  little 
is  said  by  the  Greek  writers  respecting  the  buildings  .along 
the  margin  of  the  gulf,  that  it  must  be  always  extremely  di^ 
ficult  to  assign  any  other  name  to  the  relics  of  forts  and 
towns,  than  those  by  which  the  Arabs  of  the  country  are 
now  pleased  to  distinguish  them.  Charax  is  pointed  out  by 
the  great  geographer  as  occurring,  after  the  tower  just  de- 
scribed, to  a  person  travelling  from  west  to  east  ;  but,  before 
the  position  of  this  town  can  be  ascertained,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  decide  upon  that  of  Euphrantas,  which,  in  a  district 
presenting  a  continued  chain  of  forts  from  one  end  to  the 
other,  cannot  be  easily  accomplished. 

Medinet  Sultan  has  also  been  an  important  military  station, 
as  may  be  inferred  from  the  extensive  fortifications,  of  which 
it  still  presents  the  outlmes.    Though  the  plan  of  the  build- 


IMMEDIATE  DEPENDANCES. 


159 


ings  be  in  a  great  measure  perfect,  that  of  the  walls  could 
not  be  satisfactorily  made  out.  Within  a  quadrangu- 
lar enclosure  is  a  subterranean  storehouse  or  reservoir, 
which  appears  to  have  been  first  excavated  in  the  soil,  then 
formed  with  rough  stones,  and  lastly,  coated  with  an  excel- 
lent cement,  yet  remaining  almost  wholly  entire.  There  are 
several  chambers,  in  some  of  which  it  was  hoped  inscriptions 
might  be  obtained,  indicating  the  date  and  purpose  of  the 
work  ;  but  in  this  respect  curiosity  was  altogether  disap- 
pointed, no  writing  being  discovered  except  a  few  scrawls  in 
the  Arabic  character.  In  the  neighbourhood  are  the  remains 
of  the  town  itself,  which  continues  to  retain  the  proud  title  of 
Medina,  or  The  City,  where,  however,  its  greatness  has  no 
other  memorial  besides  some  good  wells  and  tanks — a  valu- 
able distinction,  no  doubt,  in  all  parts  of  Northern  Africa: 

Having  passed  Shuaisha  and  Hamed  Garoosh,  the  country 
assumes  a  more  pleasant  aspect.  The  hills  are  higher,  and 
the  valleys  better  cultivated.  Flocks  of  sheep  and  goats 
also  begin  to  appear  ;  and  the  sportsman  finds  hares,  plovers, 
quails,  curlews,  and  wild  ducks.  But  the  traveller,  amid 
the  melancholy  waste,  perceives  nothing  to  awaken  his  recol- 
lection or  amuse  his  fancy  until  he  reach  Zaffran,  one  of  the 
most  agreeable  stages  on  the  long  journey  from  Bengazi  to 
Tripoli.  Delia  Cella  describes  it  as  adorned  with  meadows, 
full  of  an  elegant  species  of  ranunculus,  with  very  large  and 
white  flowers,  and  abundantly  supplied  with  good  water. 
Fragments  of  hewn  stone,  also,  occasionally  observed  among 
the  sand,  gave  proof  that  this  part  of  the  coast  must  at  one 
time  have  been  inhabited ;  and,  indeed,  Strabo  mentions 
several  ports  near  the  bottom  of  the  gulf,  the  site  of  which 
corresponds  not  inaptly  with  that  of  the  ruins,  which  may 
still  be  detected  by  a  careful  eye.  But  the  labour  of  identi- 
fying ancient  towns,  in  a  country  so  little  known  to  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  has  not  hitherto  been  attended  with 
any  degree  of  success.  Even  in  modern  times,  this  portion 
of  Africa  is  usually  avoided  by  travellers,  who,  unless  es- 
corted by  a  strong  military  force,  and  armed  with  despotic 
power  over  the  persons  and  property  of  the  natives,  would 
find  it  impossible  to  traverse  their  wild  domains. 

The  Arabs  who  occupy  the  pasture-lands  on  the  eastern 
limits  of  the  Barcean  Desert  are  still  in  a  very  low  degree  of 
civilization.    The  men  pass  their  lives  in  the  most  complete 


160 


TRIPOLI  AND  ITS 


idleness,  stretched  out  in  their  tents,  or  seated  with  their 
heads  between  their  knees,  incessantly  chewing  tobacco  and 
small  bits  of  natron,  which  they  procure  from  the  interior, 
and  is  supposed  to  be  that  singular  species  of  laminated  car- 
bonate of  soda,  which  is  found  two  days'  journey  from  Fez- 
zan,  and  annually  brought  in  large  quantities  to  Tripoli.  It 
is  somewhat  remarkable  that  the  same  mineral  is  gathered 
near  the  lake  of  Salaguarilla,  in  the  province  of  Venezuela, 
in  South  America,  and  is  used  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  coun- 
try in  the  mastication  of  tobacco,  in  a  manner  very  similar  to 
that  followed  on  the  northern  shores  of  Africa.  Spinning 
and  weaving  camlets  are  the  ordinary  occupations  of  the  wo- 
men, who  are  said  to  be  very  awkward  at  their  work.  The 
art  is  so  little  improved,  that  their  instruments  are  exactly 
the  same  as  they  were  in  the  age  when  they  were  first  in- 
vented. The  piece  of  stuff  which  is  woven  upon  them  looks 
more  like  matting  than  woollen  cioth  ;  but  owing  to  the  ex- 
cellent quahty  of  the  materials,  it  is  extremely  soft,  and  feels 
like  plush.  They  are  equally  ignorant  in  the  art  of  spinning, 
and  of  preparing  the  wool.  Seated  upon  the  ground,  they 
put  a  heap  of  it  under  their  feet,  and,  seizing  a  tuft  of  it,  pass 
it  between  their  toes,  pulling  and  tearing  it  upward  till  they 
fasten  it  to  a  sort  of  spindle,  round  which  they  wind  the 
coarse  thick  yarn  which  they  thus  produce.* 

The  inhabitants  of  Zaffran  are  Bedouins,  as  are  those  of 
all  the  parts  of  the  Syrtis — there  not  being  a  single  inhabited 
town  or  village  between  Mesurata  and  Bengazi.  We  found 
them,  says  Captain  Beechey,  hospitable  and  obliging,  and 
never  entered  one  of  their  tents  without  receiving  a  cordial 
reception ;  their  simple  fare  of  milk  and  dates  was  always 
freely  offered,  and  our  horses  were  regaled  with  a  feed  of 
corn,  which  they  usually  found  very  acceptable.  Fresh  milk 
was  not  always  to  be  had ;  but  they  were  never  without  a 
good  supply  of  leban  (sour  milk,  or,  more  properly,  butter- 
milk) ;  and  we  were  seldom  unwilling  to  alight  from  our 
saddles  to  take  a  draught  of  this  patriarchal  beverage,  which  a 
long  day's  hard  riding,  through  a  country  without  roads,  and 
under  the  influence  of  an  African  sun,  made  infinitely  more 
palatable  than  will  easily  be  imagined  by  those  who  can  spare 
it  for  their  pigs.f 


*  Travels,  &c.,  p.  109.      t  Proceedings,  &c.,  p.  165. 


IMMEDIATE  DEPENDANCES. 


161 


The  men  are  said  to  be  healthy  and  active,  and  the  fe- 
males pretty  and  well  behaved.  The  dress  of  the  former 
consists  merely  of  a  coarse  baracan,  with  a  red  cap,  and  san- 
dals of  camel's  hide.  The  women  wear  a  loose  cotton  shirt 
under  the  baracan,  and,  instead  of  the  sandals,  are  furnished 
with  laced  boots.  They  have,  as  nsual,  a  profusion  of  rude 
ornaments,  and  charms  to  avert  the  evil  eye,  and  are  not  a 
little  anxious  to  keep  their  faces  veiled,  or  to  avoid  the  socie- 
ty of  strangers. 

The  seabeach  in  this  neighbourhood  presents  a  very  singu- 
lar and  even  formidable"  appearance,  occasioned  by  large 
blocks  of  stone  thrown  ashore  and  piled  up  bylhe  force  of 
the  waves.  The  apparent  regularity  in  which  these  masses 
are  heaped  upon  one  another,  suggests,  at  first  view,  the  idea 
that  they  were  intentionally  placed  there  for  the  purpose  of  a 
breakwater ;  but  the  long  extent  of  the  ranges  soon  exposes 
the  improbability  of  this  supposition,  and  leaves  no  doubt  as 
to  the  real  cause  by  which  the  phenomenon  has  been  pro- 
duced. The  roar  and  confusion  which  a  moderate  gale  of 
wind  produces  here,  are  such  as  in  other  places  will  be  seldom 
found  to  accompany  the  most  violent  weather. 

Zaffran  is  considered  as  the  Aspis  of  ancient  writers,  and 
Merza  Zalfran  as  the  port  of  that  city.  From  certain  facts 
and  measurements  mentioned  by  Edrisi,  Leo  Africanus,  and 
others,  it  is  supposed  that  Sert,  a  celebrated  town,  must  have 
stood  at  no  great  distance.  But  the  argument  on  which 
these  conclusions  are  founded  is  much  too  minute  to  be  in- 
troduced here,  and  is  besides  of  very  httle  interest  to  the 
general  reader.  Nor  do  the  difficulties  which  beset  the  an- 
tiquary in  this  instance  receive  any  aid  from  the  chronologer  ; 
for  an  equal  darkness  hangs  over  the  names  and  dates  of 
most  of  the  places  which  arrest  the  attention  of  a  European 
between  Mesurata  and  Pentapolis.  It  is  conjectured,  indeed, 
with  some  show  of  reason,  that  the  majority  of  them  were 
erected  by  the  Romans  during  the  imperial  government,  as 
they  possessed  at  various  times  the  whole  of  the  northern, 
coast  of  Africa,  and  maintained  an  extensive  communication 
along  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  even  wuh  the 
lands  beyond  the  Desert. 

At  Giratf  a  salt  marsh  or  lake  commences,  which  continues 
nearly  to  thfe  termination  of  the  Greater  Syrtis.  The  scenery 
is  extremely  wild  and  desolate,  exhibiting  little  besides 
"    O  2 


162 


TRIPOLI  AND  ITS 


mounds  of  sand,  and  ruins  of  which  the  very  names  have 
perished.  At  Arar  were  found  some  wells  excavated  in  a 
bed  of  sandstone,  containing  the  exuvias  of  marine  animals 
united  by  a  calcareous  cement.  This  stratum  cannot  be 
very  thick,  for  the  water  issues  from  the  sides  of  the  cavity, 
at  the  depth  of  five  or  six  feet,  and  soon  clarifies  itself  when 
allowed  to  stand.  Pliny  was  of  opinion  that  the  facility  of 
obtaining  this  indispensable  liquid  is  occasioned  by  a  process 
of  filtration,  whereby  the  rains  which  fall  on  the  mountains  of 
Mauritania  are  conveyed  under  the  surface  to  a  great  dis- 
tance on  either  side.  Nor,  according  to  the  judgment  of  the 
author  of  the  Travels  in  Barbary,  was  the  Roman  naturalist 
wrong  in  ascribing  the  origin  of  these  wells  to  the  floods  in 
the  hilly  district,  which,  not  finding  a  channel  to  convey 
them  to  the  sea,  stagnate  under  the  immense  heaps  of  sand 
with  which  this  coast  abounds.  The  water  does,  no  doubt, 
taste  brackish  to  lips  accustomed  to  the  limpid  streams  of 
Europe  ;  but,  as  the  proportion  of  salt  is  really  inconsiderable, 
it  is  presumed  that  the  supply  of  moisture  is  not  derived  im- 
mediately from  the  ocean.  In  fact,  the  elevation  at  which 
such  wells  are  dug  must  preclude  the  supposition  that  they 
coald  ever  be  filled  by  a  natural  oozing  from  the  basin  of  the 
neighbouring  deep  ;  and  hence  the  water  obtained  from  them 
must  have  some  connexion  with  the  peculiarity  of  the  soil, 
which,  however  parched  on  the  top,  is  abundantly  moist  at  a 
little  depth.* 

After  a  march  of  two  hours,  the  promontory  which  begins 
at  Mesurata  sinks  into  the  Mediterranean  at  the  place  called 
by  Ptolemy  Cape  Triero.  From  this  point  the  eye  com- 
mands nearly  the  whole  of  the  vast  gulf  known  as  the  Greater 
Syrtis,  as  well  as  of  the  desert  regions  by  which  it  is  bor- 
dered ;  and  we  can  well  believe  that  the  heart  of  the  traveller 
shrinks  at  the  sight  of  such  melancholy  sohtudes,  where  the 
earth  is  destitute  of  its  usual  covering,  and  the  surface  so 
flat  that  not  a  single  hillock  can  be  descried.  The  shores  of 
this  dangerous  recess  were  lately  occupied  by  the  tribe  of  the 
Welled  Ali,  who,  rebelling  against  the  Pacha  of  Tripoli, 
were  utterly  exterminated  by  the  bey,  his  eldest  son.  Se- 

*  "  Puteostamen  baud  difficilis  binum  femxp  cubitorum  inve- 
niunt  altitudine,  ibi  restagnantibus  Mauritaniae  aquis." — Plin. 
Hist,  ^'atur,,  lib.  v. 


IMMEDIATE  DEPENDANCES.  163 


cure  in  the  strength  of  their  wilderness,  they  assassinated 
with  impunity  every  one  who  attempted  to  pass  through  it ; 
and  the  mariner,  dreading  these  miscreants  still  more  than 
tempests  and  quicksands,  carefully  avoided  their  inhospitable 
coast.  The  head  of  the  barbarian  who  commanded  this  sav- 
age horde  was  fixed  upon  a  pole  at  the  extremity  of  the  gulf, 
in  the  year  1817,  when  Delia  Cella  performed  his  journey  to 
the  Cyrenaica. 

At  Mesurata  there  is  a  town  of  the  same  name,  about  a 
mile  from  the  sea,  the  houses  of  which  are  said  to  be  wretch- 
edly constructed,  and  for  the  most  part  separated  from  each 
other  by  gardens  or  vacant  ground.  They  are  not  more 
than  ten  feet  in  height,  built  of  pebbles  cemented  with  mud  ; 
the  roof  being  nothing  more  than  palm-leaves  and  straw  in- 
terwoven, laid  upon  rafters,  and  daubed  over  with  a  mixture 
of  sand  and  slime.  The  inhabitants  derive  their  chief  sub- 
sistence from  the  produce  of  the  soil;  but  there  are  also 
some  manufactories  of  carpets  and  other  goods,  the  principal 
beauty  of  which  arises  from  the  fine  quality  of  the  native 
wool  employed  in  their  fabric >  Caravans  go  from  hence  to 
Fezzan  and  Wady  Ghraat,  with  cotton  cloth,  camlets,  and 
coloured  beads,  the  most  envied  ornament  of  the  sable  maidens 
on  the  banks  of  the  Joliba  ;  for  at  the  latter  of  these  stations 
they  meet  the  negro  merchants  from  the  regions  beyond  the 
sands,' who  carry  those  articles  to  Timbuctoo,  in  exchange 
for  gold-dust,  ivory,  and  slaves. 

It  has  been  already  mentioned,  that  salt-marshes  prevail 
along  the  greater  part  of  the  coast,  interspersed  with  pools 
of  open  water ;  around  which,  in  the  sand,  are  numerous  in- 
crustations of  marine  salt,  in  such  abundance,  too,  that  it  is 
heard  crackling  under  the  feet  of  the  horses  and  camels  as 
they  pass  over  it.  This  phenomenon  is  mentioned  by  Herod- 
otus as  existing  upon  the  border  of  that  vast  desert,  which 
he  describes  as  extending  from  Egyptian  Thebes,  across  ihe 
country  of  the  Ammonians,  as  far  as  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  ; 
in  other  words,  on  the  edge  of  the  Sahara,  where  the  surface 
of  the  sandy  waste  is  still  found  mixed  with  the  muriate  of 
soda.  But  the  Itahan  physician  maintains  that  these  marshes 
have  no  communication  with  the  ocean  ;  obser\'ing  that  all 
the  wilderness  is  sprinkled  over  with  small  crusts,  and  that 
the  hills  which  run  towards  the  swamps  are  composed  of  the 
same  materials,  with  this  difference  only,  that  the  sand  of 


164 


TRIPOLI  AND  ITS 


the  high  ground  is  aggregate  and  compact,  while  that  of  the 
plain  is  loose  and  light.  Notwithstanding,  it  is  acknowledged 
that  in  some  parts  the  pools  of  salt  water,  the  incrustations, 
and  more  especially  the  masses  of  marine  salt,  leave  no 
doubt  that  the  Mediterranean  must  have  passed  over  the 
lower  part  of  the' coast  at  a  comparatively  recent  period.* 

In  truth,  the  occasional  spreading  of  the  sea  over  those 
desolate  shores  has  given  rise  to  the  notion  of  a  bay  or  inlet, 
which  is  supposed  to  extend  about  fifty  miles  into  the  in- 
terior. By  D'Anville  this  indentation' is  called  the  Gulf  of 
Zuca  ;  while  it  is  laid  down  in  the  same  dimensions  by  Ar- 
rowsrnith,  who  does  not,  however,  venture  to  give  it  a  name. 
To  account  for  this  mistake,  Delia  Celia  reminds  his  readers 
that  the  country  contiguous  to  this  part  of  the  Great  Syrtis 
is  flat,  and  very  little  raised  above  the  ordinary  level  of  the 
sea  ;  that  though  the  shores  are  lined  with  sand-hills,  they 
are. frequently  dispersed  by  hurricanes,  and  even  shift  their 
position  from  other  causes  ;  that  in  winter  the  waves  are 
forcibly  driven  upon  the  coast  ;  and  that  the  currents,  run- 
ning from  north  to  south,  greatly  increase  the  body  of  watef 
on  the  African  side  during  the  same  season  of  the  year. 
Hence,  he  is  disposed  to  conclude,  that  under  these  circum- 
stances, the  sea,  breaking  down  the  sandy  ramparts  on  the 
beach,  spreads  itself  over  the  adjacent  plains  and  inundates 
a  considerable  tract  of  country.  It  accordingly  happens,  that 
the  vast  pools  of  salt  water,  which  commence  between  Arar 
-and  Segamengiura,  although  often  disunited,  form  in  winter 
one  very  spacious  lake  communicating  with  the  sea,  and  con- 
tinuing as  long  as  the  causes  just  specified  keep  up  its  level 
to  a  certain  height.  When  those  causes  cease  to  operate, 
the  communication  is  interrupted  ;  the  return  of  heat  pro- 
motes evaporation  ;  the  lake  dwindles  into  a  variety  of  small 
pools  ;  the  spots  from  which  the  water  has  retired  remain 
marshy  ;  and  their  edges,  as  soon  as  they  have  dried,  present 
abundant  deposites  of  marine  salt.  The  stratum  of  sand 
which  covers  these  deposites  is  no  obstacle  to  the  process 
of  evaporation  ;  for,  as  the  whole  soil  is  light  and  hot,  the 
escape  of  the  aqueous  particles  is  thereby  rather  facilitated 
than  checked.! 

*  Travels  in  Barbary,  p.  62. 

t  Narrative  of  an  Expedition,  p.  65.  ^ 


IMMEDIATE  DEPENDANCES. 


165 


Leo  Africanus  has  adverted  to  Mesurata  as  a  province  on 
the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  distant  about  a  hundred  miles 
from  Tripoh.  He  states,  that  it  contains  many  castles  and 
villages  ;  some  on  heights,  and  others  on  the  plain  ;  adding, 
that  the  inhabitants  were  excessively  rich,  owing  to  their 
attention  to  commerce  and  exemption  from  tribute.  In  his 
days,  they  were  in  the  habit  of  receiving  foreign  wares, 
•brought  to  themiy  the  Venetians,  and  of  carrying  them  into 
Numidia,  where  they  exchanged  them  for  slaves,  civet,  and 
musk,  from  Ethiopia,  which  they  afterward  sent  to  the  Turkish 
market.  The  population  of  the  district  is  supposed  to  amount 
to  fourteen  thousand,  the  greater  part  of  whom  are  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  carpets,  straw  mats,  and  earthen  jars. 
Their  gardens,  which  are  carefully  enclosed,  produce  abun- 
dance of  dates,  olives,  pomegranates,  pumpions,  carrots, 
onions,  turnips,  radishes,  tobacco,  and  cotton.  But  the 
place,  it  is  obvious,  is  not  now  so  flourishing  as  it  was  in 
the  days  of  Leo,  and  its  trade  appears  to  be  exceedingly 
trifling. 

After  Selin,  which  has  nothing  particular  to  recommend  it, 
succeeds  Zelitcn,  a  small  town  containing  about  five  hundred 
souls.  The  houses,  as  usual,  are  built  with  mud  and  rough 
stones  ;  the  roofs  being  formed  of  mats  and  the  branches  of 
trees,  covered  with  a  coating  of  earth.  The  numerous  ruins 
which  exist  in  the  vicinity,  and  the  frequent  appearance  of 
marble  columns  projecting  through  the  mean  walls  of  the 
cottages,  seem  to  indicate  its  former  magnificence  as  the 
*♦  Cisternae  Oppidum"  of  Ptolemy.  The  port,  which  still 
bears  the  name  of  Mersa  Zeliten,  is  described  as  an  insignifi- 
cant cove  that  would  scarcely  afford  shelter  to  a  boat.  The 
district  enjoys,  however,  the  advantage  of  a  copious  supply 
of  water,  which  might  indeed  be  rendered  much  more  valua- 
ble, could  the  Arabs  be  taught  to  exercise  a  httle  industry 
and  foresight. 

The  same  author  writes  in  high  terms  concerning  the  pro- 
ductiveness of  the  plain  which  stretches  from  Lebida  to  Cape 
Mesurata.  It  appears,  in  truth,  to  have  been  the  most  pop- 
ulous part  of  Libya  in  the  time  of  Herodotus,  who  compares 
its  exuberant  fertility  to  that  of  the  country  round  Babylon, 
then  esteemed  the  richest  soil  in  the  world.  Nor  is  this  ex- 
traordinary degree  of  fruitfulness  owing,  in  any  measure,  to 
the  skill  or  assiduity  of  the  inhabitants,  but  proceeds  solely 


166 


TRIPOLI  AND  ITS 


from  the  generous  nature  of  the  land,  which  is  spontaneously 
covered  with  palms  and  olive-trees,  entire  strangers  to  cul- 
tivation. 

In  this  neighbourhood  is  the  Cinyphus,  now  called  the 
Wady  Khahan,  which  is  said  by  Ptolemy  to  flow  from  certain 
eminences  in  the  interior,  styled 'the  Hills  of  the  Graces. 
There  is  a  passage  in  Strabo  which  is  considered  as  leaving 
no  doubt  upon  the  subject,  for  he  speaks  of  a  bridge  con- 
structed by  the  Carthaginians  across  the  morasses  ;  and  the 
remains  of  the  piles  which  supported  the  arches  of  such  an 
edifice  are  still  to  be  seen  there.  He  likewise  says,  that  the 
surrounding  country  was  frequently  inundated  by  the  torrent ; 
and  such  is  the  case  at  present  during  the  rainy  season.  The 
people  of  Leptis  were  probably  supplied  with  water  from  the 
Cinyphus — the  remains  of  an  aqueduct  extending  from  the 
riiins  of  the  bridge  to  that  town  being  still  visible. 

Of  Lebida  itself,  the  Leptis  Magna  of  former  ages,  nothing 
now  appears,  except  some  shapeless  ruins  scattered  about, 
and  half-buried  under  the  mounds  of  sand,  which  the  wind 
and  waves  mutually  strive  to  accumulate  upon  the  seashore. 
They  consist  of  the  remains  of  magnificent  edifices,  dilapi- 
dated towers,  shattered  columns  of  red  granite,  broken  cap- 
itals, and  fragments  of  every  species  of  marble  ;  among  which 
the  Parian,  the  Pentilic,  and  the  oriental  porphyry,  are  the 
most  conspicuous,  and  particularly  worthy  of  admiration. 
This  city  is  understood  to  have  been  founded  in  remote  ages 
by  the  Phoenicians,  and  long  afterward  to  have  been  a  Roman 
colony.  In  such  a  heap  of  rubbish,  it  is  not  easy  to  point  out 
any  vestiges  of  the  more  primitive  structures  ;  but  those  of 
Italian  origin  are  sufficiently  denoted  by  the  style  of  archi- 
tecture, and  the  ornaments  of  the  capitals.  It  is  well  known, 
so  grand  were  some  of  the  edifices  erected  by  those  masters 
of  the  ancient  world,  that  seven  granite  pillars,  of  an  im- 
mense size,  were,  on  account  of  their  unconrunon  beauty, 
transported  to  France,  and  used  in  ornamenting  one  of  the 
palaces  built  for  Louis  the  Fourteenth. 

The  account  of  Lebida  given  by  Captain  Smyth,  published 
in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Expedition  to  explore  the  Northern 
Coast  of  Africa,  is  extremely  interesting  ;  and  as  he  had  the 
command  of  a  larger  portion  of  time  than  usually  falls  to  the  lot 
of  an  ordinary  traveller,  the  details  with  which  he  supplied  his 
friend  Captain  Beechey  merit  a  due  share  of  attention.  He  re- 


IMMEDIATE  DEPENDANCES. 


167 


lates  that  he  first  visited  it  in  1816,  to  ascertain  whether  it  were 
possible  to  embark  the  numerous  columns  lying  on  its  sands, 
which  the  Pacha  of  Tripoli  had  offered  to  his  majesty.  These 
remains  had,  in  his  eyes,  a  very  interesting  appearance,  from 
the  contrast  of  their  fallen  grandeur  with  the  mud-built  vil- 
lages, and  the  huts  of  the  Nomadic  tribes  around;  The  city,- 
with  its  immediate  suburb,  seemed  to  occupy  a  space  oj  about 
ten  thousand  yards,  the  principal  portion  of  which  is  now 
covered  with  a  fine  white  sand,  that,  drifting  along  the  beach, 
has  been  arrested  by  the  ruins,  and  proved  the  means  of 
preserving  the  pillars,  capitals,  cornices,  and  sculptured  frag- 
ments, which  it  partly  covers.  On  his  return  the  following 
year,  he  was  surprised  to  find  that  most  of  the  valuable 
columns  which  were  standing  the  precedmg  May,  had  either 
been  removed,  or  were  lying  broken  on  the  spot,  and  that 
nearly  all  of  those  remaining  had  their  astragal  and  torus 
chipped  off.  He  discovered  that  a  report  had  been  circulated 
of  his  intention  to  carry  them  to  England  ;  and  as  this  scene 
had  long  been  a  quarry  whence  the  Arabs  provided  them- 
selves with  millstones,  they  had,  in  the  meantime,  been 
busily  employed  in  breaking  the  finest  shafts  as  a  supply  for 
their  future  wants  in  so  necessary  a  branch  of  domestic 
economy. 

Notwithstanding  these  discouraging  appearances,  he  en- 
gaged a  hundred  Arabs  to  assist  him  in  effecting  an  excava- 
tion near  the  centre  of  the  city,  in  the  hope  of  laying  bare 
some  specimens  of  ancient  art.  But  he  soon  had  the  morti- 
fication of  perceiving,  that  Leptis  had  been  completely  rav- 
aged in  former  times,  and  its  public  edifices  demolished  with 
diligent  labour  ;  owing,  perhaps,  to  what  he  calls  the  furious 
bigotry  of  the  Carthaginian  bishops,  who  zealously  destroyed 
the  Pagan  monuments  in  all  places  under  their  control.  From 
whatever  cause  it  proceeded,  the  destruction  is  complete. 
Most  of  the  statues  are  either  broken  to  pieces  or  hammered 
into  shapeless  masses,  the  arabesque  ornaments  defaced,  the 
acanthus-leaves  and  volutes  knocked  off  the  fallen  capitals, 
and  even  part  of  the  pavements  torn  up,  the  shafts  alone  re- 
maining entire.  With  the  view  of  gaining  farther  informa- 
tion, he  opened  an  extensive  necropolis  or  burial-place,  but 
with  little  success.  There  were  neither  vases  nor  lachry- 
matories ;  and  his  labour  met  with  no  reward  besides  a  coarse 
-  species  of  amphorae  and  some  paterae,  with  a  few  brass  coins, 


168 


TRIPOLI  AND  ITS 


neither  rare  nor  handsome,  and  principally  dated  in  the  reigne 
of  Severus,  Pupienus,  Alexander,  Julia  Mammea,  Balbus, 
and  Gordianus  Pius.  A  number  of  intaglios,  poorly  executed, 
were  picked  up  in  different  parts,  as  also  some  very  commou 
Carthaginian  medals,  but  nothing  indicating  high  antiquity, 
or  an  improved  state  of  the  arts. 

In  the  course  of  this  excavation,  Captain  Smyth  had  an 
opportunity  of  observing  proofs  of  the  fact  already  stated  by 
us,  that  the  greatness  of  this  city  must  have  been  posterior 
to  the  Augustan  age,  when  taste  was  on  the  decline.  ,  The 
colossal  statues  were  in  bad  style,  and  most  of  the  buildings 
had  been  overloaded  with  indifferent  ornament.  Without 
the  gates,  there  are  the  remains  of  various  aqueducts  and 
reservoirs,  some  of  which  are  in  excellent  preservation.  In- 
deed, the  whole  plain,  from  the  Margib  Hills  to  the  Cinyphus, 
exhibits  unequivocal  tokens  of  its  ancient  opulence  and  vast 
population.  The  gallant  officer  expresses  his  regret  that  no 
works  of  art,  properly  so  called,  were  recovered  from  the 
wreck  of  this  provincial  metropolis.  He  consoles  himself, 
however,  with  the  recollection,  that  during  the  summer  of 
1817  many  of  the  architectural  fragments  were  moved  down 
to  the  beach,  where  they  were  put  on  board  a  storeship  for 
England  ;  together  with  thirty-seven  shafts,  which  formed 
the  principal  object  of  the  expedition,  and  are  now  deposited 
in  the  court  of  the  British  Museum.  But  the  vessel,  un- 
fortunately, wais  too  small  to  admit  three  fine  Cepolline 
columns  of  great  magnitude,  which,  from  their  extreme 
beauty  and  perfection,  he  was  extremely  desirous  to  have 
removed.* 

Mr.  Lucas,  speaking  of  the  remains  of  Lebida,  observes, 
that  they  consist  of  the  ruins  of  a  temple,  and  several  tri- 
umphal arches.  The  fertility  and  beauty  of  the  neighbour- 
ing plains  discover  the  reasons  which  induced  the  Romans  to 
erect  a  seaport  town  in  a  place  where  there  is  no  natural 
harbour.  A  luxuriant  vegetation,  totally  unaided  by  the  Arab 
inhabitants,  extends  twenty-five  miles  to  the  eastward,  and 
the  interest  of  the  scene  is  increased  by  the  remains  of  a 
stupendous  aqueduct,  which  conveved  water  from  a  distant 
source.  Mr.  Blaquiere  mentions,  that  there  are  gateways, 
walls,  an  immense  number  of  pillars,  some  of  which  are  of 


*  Proceedings,  &c.,  p.  74. 


IMMEDIATE  DEPENDANCES. 


169 


the  finest  granite,  broken  statues,  and  marbles,  with  inscrip- 
tions in  Greek,  Latin,  and  Punic  characters.  There  are 
also  a  great  many  sculptured  friezes,  which  appear  to  have 
belonged  to  temples ;  the  remains  of  several  Roman  baths 
are  visible  near  the  city  ;  and  about  a  mile  distant  is  an 
oblong  terrace  of  fine  Roman  pavement,  apparently  connect- 
ed with  an  ancient  theatre.  Cameos,  coins,  medals,  and 
bronzes,  are  frequently  found  by  the  natives,  who  sometimes 
take  them  to  the  town  fat  sale,  but  as  often  destroy  them 
from  motives  of  superstition. 

In  approaching  the  capital,  the  attention  is  attracted  for  a 
moment  by  some  pleasant  villages,  distinguished  by  the  name 
of  Tagiura,  which  are  supposed  to  occupy  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Abrotonum.  These  hamlets  are  surrounded  by  en- 
closed fields,  yielding  abundant  crops  of  corn,  fruit,  and 
vegetables,  and  shaded  by  thickly-planted  trees,  among  which 
are  the  ©live  and  date.  According  to  Delia  Cella,  the  in- 
habitants of  the  plain  between  Tripoh  and  this  station  have 
made  it  a  theatre  of  rural  industry.  It  is  a  tract  of  coast 
about  twelve  miles  in  length  and  three  in  breadth,  bounded 
to  the  south  by  shifting  sands,  which  divide  it  from  the 
mountains  of  Gharian.  Among  the  plantations  of  pmlm-trees 
are  many  delightful  gardens,  full  of  lemon  and  orange-trees, 
and  protected  by  impenetrable  fences  composed  of  the  Indian 
fig.  Tagiura  contains  about  three  thousand  inhabitants, 
chiefly  Moors  and  Jews,  whose  houses  are  dispersed  in 
groups  over  the  face  of  the  country,  and  who,  besides  their 
labours  as  husbandmen,  engage  in  the  manufacture  of  coarse 
camlets,  and  mats  made  of  leaves.  At  a  Uttle  distance  are 
a  variety  of  Bedouin  tribes,  who  feed  their  flocks  on  the  edge 
of  the  Desert,  as  well  as  on  an  extensive  plain  called  Turot, 
the  verdant  pastures  of  which  are  most  grateful  to  the  eye. 
If  the  industry  of  these  people  were  supported  by  the 
government,  their  lands  might  always  be  kept  fresh  by  moist- 
ure from  the  hills,  and  rendered  incredibly  fertile.! 

But  there  is  nothing  in  the  character  or  manners  of  these 
migratory  herdsmen  so  interesting  as  to  justify  farther  details. 
VVe  therefore  proceed  to  Tripoli  itself,  the  history  and  present 
condition  of  which  abound  with  incidents  at  once  more  im- 

*  Letters  from  the  Mediterranean,  vol.  ii.,  p.  19,  edition  1813. 
+  Narrative  of  an  Expedition,  p.  22. 

P 


170 


TRIPOLI  AND  ITS 


portant  and  intelligible  to  the  reader,  and  which,  though  they* 
are  regulated  by  principles  not  a  little  different  from  those 
which  influence  the  current  of  events  in  civilized  countries, 
begin  to  assume  a  closer  affinity  to  the  politics  of  Europe. 

It  has  been  already  mentioned,  that  the  State  of  Tripohs 
derived  its  ancient  name  from  the  three  towns,  Leptis  Magna, 
Oea,  and  Sabrata ;  the  domain  attached  to  which  may  be 
described  as  extending  from  the  Gulf  of  Sidra,  or  the  Greater 
Syrtis,  to  that  of  Cabes,  or  the  Lesser  Syrtis.  The  modern 
city,  which  bears  the  somewhat  altered  appellation  of  Tripoli," 
is  understood  to  occupy  the  site  of  Oea;  being  washed  by 
the  sea  on  the  north  and  east,  while  on  the  other  two  sides  it 
is  invested  by  a  sandy  plain.  It  is  true  that  Oea  is  nowhere 
mentioned  as  a  port,  whereas  the  town  by  which  it  has  been 
succeeded  must  always  have  touched  the  shore  ;  but  as  the 
Greek  geographers  were  not  very  particular  in  their  distinc- 
tions, the  objection  which  might  be  drawn  from  the  circum- 
stance now  stated  is  not  held  of  much  weight. 

Before  the  building  of  the  present  town,  believed  to  be  of 
Moorish  origin,  there  was  one  denominated  Tripoli  Vecchia^ 
elevated  on  the  ruins  of  Leptis  Magna,  which,  again,  owed 
its  foundation  to  the  Phoenicians  at  a  very  remote  period. 
The  old  Tripoli  was  destroyed  by  the  Saracens,  under  the 
caliphate  of  Omar,  who,  after  a  siege  of  six  months,  de- 
moUshed  its  walls,  and  carried  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabi- 
tants prisoners  into  Egypt.  This  event  is  recorded  by  Leo 
Africanus,  who  remarks  at  the  same  time,  that  the  unfortu- 
nate city  had  been  erected  by  the  Romans,  and  that  the  one 
which  inherits  the  name  was  built  by  the  natives  of  Africa. 
Leo  does  not  assign  a  date  for  the  birth  of  the  second  Tripoh, 
nor  does  he  anywhere  intimate  that  it  w^as  placed  among  the 
ruins  of  Oea — a  town  which  was  also  indebted  for  its  prin- 
cipal ornaments  to  the  imperial  government.  A  magnificent 
arch,  still  remaining,  is  sufficient  to  establish  these  facts  ; 
while  an  inscription,  not  yet  defaced  by  the  hand  of  time,- 
distinctly  refers  its  date  to  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius. 

The  African  geographer  has  taken  pains  to  inform  us,  that 
the  houses  of  Tripoli,  when  compared  with  those  of  Tunis, 
are  extremely  elegant.  But  this  distinction,  if  it  ever  ex- 
isted, must  have  passed  away  ;  for  the  rude  and  dilapidated 
masses  of  mud  and  stone,  which  now  present  themselves  to 
the  eye  of  the  traveller  under  the  name  of  dwellings,  have, 


IMMEDIATE  DEPENDANCES.  171 


indeed,  very  little  of  architectviral  beauty  to  recommend 
them.  In  entering  its  gates,  those  who  are  not  accustomed 
to  Mohammedan  negligence  might  imagine  that  they  had 
wandered  into  some  deserted  and  ruinous  place,  though  they 
be  actually  traversing  the  most  admired  streets  of  a  fashion- 
able quarter.  This  impression,  so  far  as  Europeans  are  con- 
cerned, is  unavoidable  ;  but  the  inhabitants  themselves  are 
strongly  convinced  of  the  beauty  and  convenience  of  their 
capital ;  while  the  wandering  Arab,  when  he  approaches  its 
ramparts,  looks  up  to  the  high  and  whitewashed  walls  of 
the  pacha's  castle,  expressing  vividly  in  his  countenance  the 
astonishment  he  feels,  that  human  hands  and  ingenuity  could 
have  accomplished  such  a  structure  !* 

Mr.  Blaquiere  has  a  more  favourable  opinion  of  Tripoli, 
which,  he  says,  might  be  taken  as  a  model  by  some  European 
towns  in  the  Mediterranean ;  and,  though  it  possesses 
neither  the  elegance  nor  regularity  of  Valetta,  you  never 
hear  of  acts  of  violence  being  committed  in  the  streets,  and 
robberies  are  altogether  unknown.  This  is  the  result  of  a 
well-regulated  police,  for  which  all  the  towns  of  Barbary  are 
very  remarkable  ;  for,  independently  of  a  night-patrol,  there 
is  a  guard  stationed  in  each  street,  who  is  responsible  for 
whatever  may  occur  in  it  of  an  improper  nature.  There  is 
besides  always  a  number  of  people  kept  for  the  express  pur- 
pose of  sweeping  the  town — a  precaution  of  the  greatest 
utility,  to  which,  among  others,  we  may  attribute  the  health 
generally  enjoyed  by  the  inhabitants. 

But  it  must  not  be  concealed,  that  his  estimate  of  the 
moral  character  of  the  Tripolines  themselves  is  by  no  means 
so  flattering.  He  assures  his  readers,  that  he  has  been 
unable  to  discover  any  good  qualities  which  might  be  put  in 
contrast  with  their  revenge,  avarice,  treachery,  and  deceit, 
conspicuous  alike  in  the  prince  and  the  peasant.  In  fact, 
there  is  no  species  of  artifice  which  a  Moor  will  not  practise 
to  attain  his  object ;  no  lies  nor  imposture  to  which  he  has 
not  recourse  when  dealing  with  foreigners.  Menaces  and 
threals  are  sometimes  employed  by  the  higher  order  of 
society  ;  while  the  Arabs  pride  themselves  in  the  success  of 
their  attempts  to  impose  quietly  on  your  credulity.  Stab- 
bing with  a  knife  is  the  usual  result  of  a  serious  dispute 

*  Beechey,  p.  6. 


172 


TRIPOLI  AND  ITS 


between  soldiers  or  sailors.  Civilians,  on  the  other  hand, 
are  said  to  gratify  their  resentment  against  each  other  by 
administering  poison  in  a  cup  of  coffee  ;  and  this  mode  of 
removing  an  enemy  or  a  rival  has  become  so  common,  that 
when  any  person  dies  suddenly,  people  say,  "  He  has  taken 
his  coffee!''  The  medicated  beverage  is  sometimes  given 
with  the  view  of  producing  instant  dissolution,  and  at  others 
with  the  intention  of  prolonging  the  victim's  miseries  for 
several  months. 

But  it  is  admitted  by  all  travellers,  that  the  distant  view  of 
Tripoli,  especially  from  the  Mediterranean,  is  grand  and  not 
a  little  imposing.  Previous  to  entering  the  bay,  says  an 
author  who  spent  several  years  in  Northern  Africa,  the 
country  is  rendered  picturesque  by  various  teints  of  beautiful 
verdure.  No  object  whatever  seems  to  interrupt  the  even- 
ness of  the  soil,  which  is  almost  white,  and  interspersed  with 
long  avenues  of  trees  ;  for  such  is  the  appearance  of  the 
numerous  palms,  planted  in  regular  rows,  and  kept  in  the 
finest  order.  Their  immense  branches,  coarse  when  near, 
are  neat  and  distinct  at  a  distance.  The  land  lying  low  and. 
very  level,  the  naked  stems  of  these  trees  are  scarcely  seen ; 
and  the  plantations  of  dates  seem  to  extend  many  miles  in 
luxuriant  woods  and  groves.  The  whole  town  appears  in  a 
semicircle  some  time  before  reaching  the  harbour's  mouth. 
The  extreme  whiteness  of  the  buildings,  flat,  square,  and 
covered  with  Ume,  encountering  the  sun's  fiercest  rays,  is 
not  less  striking  than  oppressive.  The  baths  forjn  clusters 
of  very  large  cupolas,  crowded  together  in  different  parts  of 
the  town.  The  mosques  have  in  general  a  small  plantation 
of  Indian  figs  and  date-trees  growing  close  to  them,  which, 
at  a  distance,  appearing  to  be  so  many  rich  gardens,  give  to 
the  whole  city,  in  the  eyes  of  a  European,  an  aspect  truly 
novel  and  pleasing.  On  entering  the  harbour,  the  town 
begins  to  show  what  it  has  suffered  from  the  destructive 
hand  of  time — large  hills  of  rubbish  appearing  in  different 
parts  of  it.  The  castle  or  palace  in  which  the  pacha  resides 
is  at  the  east  end,  within  the  walls.  This  edifice  is  very 
ancient  and  well-enclosed.  It  has,  however,  lost  all  sym- 
metry on  the  inside,  from  the  innumerable  additions  made  to 
it  with  the  view  of  accommodating  the  different  branches  of 
the  royal  family,  none  of  whom  are  permitted  to  live  else- 


IMMEDIATE  DEPENDANCES.  173 


where.  In  fact,  it  has  gradually  increased  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  have  assumed  the  appearance  of  a  fortified  village.* 

This  description  coincides  exactly  with  that  given  by 
Captain  Beechey.  He  tells  us,  that  the  outline  of  Tripoli  is 
extremely  irregular,  and  that,  though  the  walls  which  en- 
compass it  seem  to  have  been  very  strong,  they  are  fast 
falling  into  ruins.  The  ramparts  are  provided,  with  a  few 
guns,  which,  however,  are  for  the  most  part  unserviceable, 
and  more  likely  to  injure  those  whom  they  are  meant  to  pro- 
tect than  to  annoy  an  enterprising  enemy.  In  truth,  the 
pacha  does  not  rely  upon  the  artificial  defences  of  the  place 
for  security  against  the  aggressions  of  a  European  fleet. 
He  has  much  more  confidence  in  that  jealousy  which  has 
hitherto  prevented  the  great  Christian  governments  from  co- 
operating together  for  a  common  object,  and,  more  especially, 
fpr  establishing  colonies  on  the  shores  of  Barbary,  though 
their  own  reputation,  and  the  lives  and  properties  of  their 
subjects,  require  that  they  should  at  all  hazards  attain  an  un- 
disputed ascendency  over  those  piratical  tribes  who  have  so 
long  infested  the  Mediterranean, 

The  grand  mosque,  in  which  the  pacha's  family  are  buried, 
is  said  to  have  a  very  handsome  exterior.  It  stands  in  the 
main,  street,  near  the  southern  gate  of  the  city,  and  almost 
opposite  to  the  palace.  Before  the  entry  there  is  a  species 
of  portico  fabricated  of  lattice-work,  curiously  carved,  and 
two  folding-doors  of  the  same  material ;  while  a  great  num- 
ber of  beautifully  coloured  tiles,  with  which  the  bottom  of 
the  lattice-work  is  set,  give  it  an  appearance  of  neatness 
very  pleasing  to  the  eye.  Over  the  doors  of  all  the  mosques 
are  long  sentences  from  the  Koran,  cut  in  stone  and  painted. 
Those  on  this  edifice  are  not  only  more  richly  gilt  and 
coloured,  but  the  sculpture  is  also  much  handsomer  than  on 
any  other  in  the  town.f 

The  principal  specimen  of  antiquity  now  remaining  is  the 
triumphal  arch  already  mentioned,  built  of  fine  marble  and 
ornamented  with  sculpture  and  inscriptions.  The  greatest 
part  of  this  beautiful  monument  is  buried  in  the  earth,  which 
reaches  nearly  to  the  'middle  of  it ;  and  the  upper  part  has 
received  considerable  damage  from  the  accidents  of  war  and 


*  Tally's  Letters,  vol.  i.,  p.  16.      f  Ibid.,  p.  14. 
P  2 


174 


TRIPOLI  AND  ITS 


the  ignorant  curiosity  of  the  natives.  It  was  erected  by  the 
Consul  Scipio  CEfritus,  in  the  days  of  Pius  Antoninus,  and 
afterward  dedicated  to  the  honour  of  his  successors.  We 
are  told  that  it  is  esteemed  by  all  good  judges  as  more 
striking  than  any  of  the  most  celebrated  in  Italy  ;  as  the 
temple  of  Janus  at  Rome,  though  constructed  of  marble, 
and  regarded  as  one  of  the  finest  of  these  edifices,  has  only 
a  plain  roof  It  does  not  appear  so  high  as  it  really  is,  owing 
to  the  great  accumulation  of  sand  carried  thither  by  the 
winds  ;  and  this  is  the  reason  why  there  is  as  much  of  the 
structure  now  under  the  surface  as  can  be  seen  above  it. 
The  stones  of  which  it  is  composed  are  so  extremely  large, 
that  it  seems  wonderful  how  they  could  be  conveyed  from 
the  quarry  ;  and,' in  a  country  and  an  age  so  destitute  of 
mechanical  means,  it  is  perhaps  not  less  surprising  how  they 
were  raised  to  such  a  height  from  the  ground.  No  cement 
has  been  used  to  fasten  them  together  ;  yet,  so  solid  are  they, 
that,  so  far  as  the  ravages  of  time  are  considered,  the  pile 
may  be  pronounced  quite  uninjured.  The  ceiling  is  of  the 
most  beautiful  sculpture,  a  small  part  of  which  only  remains 
in  view,  as  the  Moors,  blind  to  its  beauties,  have  for  some 
time  filled  it  up  with  rubbish  and  mortar,  to  form  shops  or 
warehouses  in  the  interior  of  the  arch.  On  the  outside  are 
enormous  groups  of  whole-length  figures  of  men  and  women, 
exhibiting  allegorical  scenes,  or,  it  may  be,  representing  some 
of  the  more  important  facts  of  history.  Europeans,  it  is 
said,  are  often  tempted  to  bring  these  antiquities  to  light,  and 
they  might  doubtless  make  great  and  useful  discoveries  ;  but 
the  jealous  Turks  will  not  permit  them  to  disturb  a  stone,  or 
move  a  grain  of  sand,  on  such  an  account ;  and  repeated 
messages  have  been  sent  from  the  castle  on  these  occasions  to 
warn  Christians  of  their  danger.* 

The  inhabitants  may  be  divided  into  Moors  and  Arabs,  the 
former  having  a  fair  complexion,  while  the  latter  are  in  gen- 
eral dark  and  sallow.  They  are  all  remarkable  for  regular 
and  athletic  forms,  and  a  cripple  or  deformed  person  is 
rarely  seen  among  them.  There  are,  besides,  some  Turks 
and  Jews,  together  with  a  certain  proportion  of  negroes  and 
European  renegadoes.  As  the  pacha  affords  little  counte- 
nance to  the  Moors,  who  have,  therefore,  but  a  very  small 


*  Tally's  Letters,  vol.  i.,  p.  18. 


IMMEDIATE  DEPEJJDANCES.  175 


Rich  Moor  and  Female. 


chance  of  rising  in  the  offices  of  government,  they  apply 
themselves  to  trade,  to  manufactures,  and  even  to  agricul- 
ture, whence  many  of  them  have  acquired  considerable 
wealth.  The  cut  inserted  above  represents  a  couple  in  this 
class  of  society,  who,  by  their  dress  and  appearance,  afford 
some  indication  of  the  opulence  to  which  they  have  attained. 

The  Turks  spend  much  of  their  time  at  a  bazar,  where 
excellent  coffee  is  prepared,  and  nothing  else.  No  Moorish 
gentleman  enters  the  house,  but  sends  his  slave  to  procure  a 
cup  of  the  favourite  beverage,  which  he  drinks  at  the  door, 
seated  on  a  marble  couch  under  a  green  arbour.  These 
benches  are  furnished  with  the  richest  and  most  beautiful 
mats  and  carpets.  Here  are  found,  at  certain  hours  of  the 
day,  all  the  principal  persons  of  that  class,  sitting  cross- 
legged,  with  dishes  of  coffee  in  their  hands,  made  as  strong 
as  the  essence  itself.    On  such  occasions  they  are  always 


176 


TRIPOLI  AND  ITS 


attended  by  their  black  servants,  one  of  whom  holds  his 
master's  pipe,  another  his  cup,  and  a  third  his  handkerchief, 
while  he  is  talking.  During  conversation  the  hands  must  be 
free,  being  quite  necessary  for  the  purposes  of  discourse  ; 
for  the  speaker  marks  with  the  forefinger  of  his  right  hand 
upon  the  palm  of  his  left,  as  accurately  as  we  do  with  a  pen, 
the  different  parts  of  his  speech,  a  comma,  a  quotation,  or  a 
striking  .passage.  This  renders  their  dialogue  very  singular 
in  the  eye  of  a  European,  who,  being  unused  to  the  manner, 
has  great  difficulty  in  following  the  argument  or  narrative  to 
which  his  attention  may  be  invited. 

The  Arabs  in  the  regency  of  Tripoli  form  three  classes  ; 
the  first,  those  who  come  from  Arabia ;  the  second,  the 
Arabs  of  Africa ;  and  the  third,  the  wandering  Bedouins, 
The  two  former  are  said  to  be  equally  warlike,  handsome  in 
their  persons,  generous  in  their  temper,  honourable  in  their 
dealings,  grand  and  ambitious  in  all  their  proceedings  when 
in  power,  and  abstemious  in  their  food.  They  possess  great 
genius,  -and  enjoy  a  settled  cheerfulness,  not  in  the  least 
bordering  on  buffoonery.  Each  of  these  tribes  is  governed 
by  a  chief,  or  sheik,  by  whose  laws  all  those  under  him  are 
directed,  judged,  and  punished.  Their  trade  is  war ;  and, 
as  auxiliary  troops,  they  serve  wiih'  due  fidelity  the  master 
who  pays  them  bfcst,  so  long  as  their  contract  continues. 

The  Bedouins  are  hordes  of  petty  merchants  wandering 
over  the  country,  and  trading  in  what  they  can  carry 
from  place  to  place.  In  the  spring  of  the  year  they  advance 
to  Tripoli  to  occupy  the  plam,  or  Pianura,  as  it  is  usually 
called.  Here  they  sow  their  corn,  wait  till  they  can  reap  it, 
and  then  disappear  till  the  following  season.  They  pitch 
their  tents  under  the  walls  of  the  city,  but  cannot  enter  it 
without  leave  ;  and  for  any  misdemeanor  they  may  commit 
their  chief  is  answerable  to  the  pacha.  Both  the  Arabs  and 
Bedouins  still  retain  many  customs  described  in  sacred  and 
profane  history,  and  are  in  almost  every  thing  the  same  peo- 
ple that  we  find  mentioned  in  the  earliest  records. 

In  some  respects,  also,  these  migratory  herdsmen  bear  a 
certain  resemblance  to  the  Scottish  Highlanders.  The  men, 
for  example,  wear  a  thick  dark-brown  baracan  of  wool,  fi.ve 
pr  six  yards  long  and  about  two  wide,  which  serves  them  as 
j-.heir  whole  dress  by  day  and  their  bed  by  night.  They  put 
it  on  by  joining  the  two  upper  corners  with  a  wooden  or  iroa 


IMMEDIATE  DEPENDANCES. 


177 


bodkin,  and  these  being  first  placed  over  the  left  shoulder, 
they  afterward  fold  the  rest  round  then:  bodies,  in  a  manner 
somewhat  graceful.  To  those  unaccustomed  to  wear  it,  the 
adjustment  of  its  folds  is  no  simple  matter  ;  and  a  stranger  is 
easily  discovered  by  the  style  of  his  robe,  so  different  from 
that  recommended  by  the  national  usage.  In  this  particular, 
the  women,  as  might  be  expected,  are  found  to  excel.  Their 
skin  is  said  to  be  very  dark,  almost  sable  ;  they  have  black 
eyes,  amazingly  white  teeth,  and  in  general  regular  features. 
They  practise,  however,  the  barbarous  custom  of  scarifying 
their  faces,  particularly  their  chins,  rubbing  the  wound  im- 
mediately with  gunpowder,  which  leaves  ever  after  a  distinct 
mark  in  the  shape  they  have  previously  cut.  Many  of  them 
prick  deeply  with  a  needle  the  figure  they  wish  to  print  in 
the  flesh — a  much  longer,  and  of  course  more  painful  opera- 
tion ;  but  the  beauty  of  the  ornament  they  consider  a  suffi- 
cient recompense  for  the  dreadful  torment  they  endure  in 
producing  it.  They  are  for  the  most  part  tall,  thin,  and  well 
made  ;  nor  do  they  seem  to  be  of  the  same  opinion  as  some 
ladies  in  Tripoli,  who  think,  that  if  they  are  not  too  fat  to 
move  without  help,  they  cannot  be  strictly  handsome  ;  and 
•who,  to  arrive  to  this,  actually  force  themselves,  after  a  plen- 
tiful meal,  to  eat  a  small  wheaten  loaf  soaked  in  water.* 

In  the  mountains  which  bound  the  plain  to  the  southward 
is  a  very  curious  village  of  Arabs.  The  habitations  are  at 
the  very  summit  of  the  ridge,  not  to  be  easily  distinguished 
but  by  those  who  inhabit  them,  as  they  are  all  fabricated 
under  ground.  A  small  entry,  very  narrow  and  long,  is  dug 
slopingly,  which  leads  under  the  earth  to  the  house,  down 
which  the  cattle  are  driven,  followed  by  the  family.  These 
people  are  chiefly  banditti ;  and  they  are  never  disturbed  or 
attacked,  as  the  narrow  sxlbterraneous  passages  to  their 
dwellings,  where  one  man  may  keep  a  great  number  at  bay, 
form  a  sufficient  protection  to  them  against  the  Moors.  The 
length  of  the  entry  to  these  caverns  has  given  rise  to  a  pro- 
verbial simile  ;  every  story  or  tale  that  is  long  and  tiresome, 
is  said  to  be  like  the  skifler  at  Ghariana,  which  has  no 
ending,  t 

The  Pianura  or  plain,  visited  periodically  by  the  Be- 
douins, presents  in  the  proper  season,  which  coincides  with 


*  Tally's  Letters,  vol.  i.^  p.  43.        f  Ibid.,  p.  49. 


1*78  TRIPOLI  AND  ITS 

pur  autumn,  an  aspect  peculiarly  pleasant  and  lich.  It  k, 
in  short,  a  little  country  of  corn — every  part  of  it  being  sown 
with  Indian  corn  and  barley.  But  during  the  greatest  part 
of  the  year  it  is  a  sea  of  sand,  shifting  from  place  to  place, 
with  occasionally  a  slight  stratum  of  mud  on  it ;  and  the 
parts  \vhich  have  been  cropped  look  as  if  they  were  burnt 
with  fire,  owing  to  the  extreme  power  of  the  solar  rays, 
which  renders  the  stubble  perfectly  black. 

We  are  told,  on  the  same  authority,  that  the  houses  of 
the  principal  people  of  Tripoli,  unlike  those  of  the  Egyptians, 
which  are  built  high,  never  exceed  one  story.  You  first 
pass  through  a  sort  of  hall  or  lodge,  called  by  the  Moors  a 
skiffer,  with  benches  of  stone  on  each  side.  From  this  a 
staircase  leads  to  a  grand  apartment,  termed  a  gulphor, 
which  possesses  a  convenience,  not  allowed  in  any  other 
room,  that,  namely,  of  having  windows  facing  the  street. 
This  chamber  is  held  sacred  to  the  master  of  the  mansion. 
Here  he  holds  his  levees,  transacts  business,  and  enjoys  con- 
vivial parties.  None,  even  of  his  own  family,  dare  enter  it 
without  his  particular  leave  ;  and,  though  such  a  restriction 
may  seem  arbitrary,  yet  a  Moorish  female,  in  this  one  in- 
stance, may  be  said  to  equal  her  lord  in  power  ;  as,  if  he 
finds  a  pair  of  lady's  slippers  at  the  door  of  her  apartment, 
he  cannot  go  in — he  must  wait  till  they  are  removed.  Be- 
yond the  hall  or  lodge  is  the  courtyard,  paved  in  a  style  of 
elegance  proportioned  to  the  fortune  of  the  owner.  Some 
are  done  with  brown  cement,  resembling  finely-polished 
stone  ;  others  are  executed  in  black  or  white  marble  ;  while 
those  of  the  poorer  class  display  nothing  more  expensive 
than  pounded  clay.  The  houses,  whether  large  or  small,  in 
town  or  in  countr}'^,  are  built  on  the  same  plan.  The  court 
is  used  for  receiving  female  patties,  entertained  by  the  prin- 
cipal wife,  upon  the  celebration  of  a  marriage  or  any  other 
feast ;  and  also,  in  cases  of  death,  for  the  performance  af 
such  funeral  services  as  are  customary  prior  to  the  removal 
of  the  body  to  the  grave.  On  these  occasions  the  pave- 
ment is  covered  with  mats  or  Turkey  carpets,  and  is  shel- 
tered from  the  heat  of  the  weather  by  an  awning  extended 
over  the  whole  yard,  for  which  the  Moors  sometimes  incur 
great  expense.  Rich  silk  cushions  are  laid  round  for  seats  ; 
the  walls  are  hung  with  tapestr}',  and  the  whole  is  converted 
jnto  a  grand  saloon.     This  court  is  surrounded  with  a 


IMMEDIATE  DEPENDANCES.  It0 


cioister,  supported  by  pillars,  over  which  a  gallery  is  erected 
of  the  same  dimensions,  enclosed  with  a  lattice-work  of 
wood.  From  the  cloister  and  gallery,  doors  open" into  large 
chambers  not  communicating  with  each  other,  which  re- 
ceive light  only  from  this  yard.  The  windows  have  no 
glass,  but  are  furnished  with  jalousies  of  wood  curiously  cut, 
admitting  only  a  faint  glimmering,  and  precluding  all  inter- 
course even  by  looks.  The  tops  of  the  houses,  which  are 
flat,  are  covered  with  plaster  or  cement,  and  surrounded  by 
a  parapet  about  a  foot  high,  to  prevent  any  thing  from  imme- 
diately falling  into  the  street.  Upoa  these  terraces  the  in- 
mates enjoy  the  refreshing  Seabreeze,  so  luxurious  after  a 
parching  day,  and  are  here  constantly  seen  at  sunset,  offering 
their  devotions  to  Mohammed  ;  for,  let  a  Moor  be  where  he 
may,  when  he  "hears  the  muezzin  announce  the  evening 
prayer,  nothing  induces  him  to  pass  that  moment  without 
prostrating  himself  to  the  ground — a  circumstance  surpri- 
sing to  Europeans,  if  they  happen  to  be  in  company,  or  even 
walking  through  the  streets. 

In  all  parts  of  Barbary,  a  guard  of  two  dragomans  is  sent 
by  the  government  to  reside  at  the  houses  of  foreign  con- 
suls and  ministers,  and  to  accompany  the  family  when- 
ever they  walk  out.  in  Algiers,  the  Christians  at  one  time 
found  it  necessary  to  allow  these  official  protectors  to  dine 
at  their  tables  ;  where,  of  course,  they  acted  as  spies  on  alt 
that  passed,  and  were  often  the  cause  of  much  disturbance. 
At  Tripoli  a  more  liberal  system  has  usually  been  adopted  ; 
and  the  military  attendants,  who  are,  as  far  as  is  desirable, 
under  the  control  of  the  embassy,  may  be  increased  or  di- 
minished according  to  circumstances. 

Notwithstanding  the  despotic  nature  of  the  authority 
with  which  the  pacha  is  invested,  it  is  not  difficult  for  the 
meanest  subject  to  approach  him,  and  make  his  case  known 
Often  when  he  is  on  the  seat  of  judgment,  the  cry  of  Shar^ 
alia — Justice  in  the  name  of  God — is  heard  resounding 
through  the  hall.  The  oppressed  Moor  calls  out  these 
words  as  he  approaches,  and  before  he  has  entered  into  the 
presence  of  his  highness  ;  upon  which  the  way  is  instantly 
made  clear  for  the  suppliant,  who  enjoys  a  pr-escriptive  right 
to  detain  the  great  man  till  his  grievances  are  redressed. 
Blaquiere  also  remarks  that,  though  the  Tripolines  are  cruel, 
the  administration  of  justice  is  equal  and  lenient.  Capital 


180 


TRIPOLI  AND  ITS 


punishments  are  by  no  means  frequent,  and.  are  never,  in- 
deed, inflicted  except  in  cases  of  murder,  the  breach  of  the 
seventh  article  of  the  Decalogue,  and  for  crimes  against  the 
government.  The  amazing  promptitude,  moreover,  with 
which  dehnquencies  of  every  kind  are  punished',  has  often 
excited  the  admiration  of  Europeans.  An  individual  is  no 
sooner  detected  in  the  violation  of  a  law,  than  he  is  seized 
and  brought  to  the  Kaya,  who  forthwith  investigates  the  al- 
leged charges  upon  evidence  ;  and,  if  the  case  involves  no 
point  of  peculiar  difficulty,  the  penalty  awarded  to  the  of- 
fence instantly  follows  conviction.  This  officer  hears  causes 
a  certain  number  of  hours  every  day.  The  pacha  also,  as 
already  mentioned,  presides  at  stated  periods,  according  to 
the  pressure  of  business  ;  on  which  occasions  every  man 
acts  as  his  own  advocate,  and,  in  defending  himself,  is  al- 
lowed to  speak  with  a  degree  of  freedom  which  would  shock 
the  feelings  of  a  European  sovereign.* 

The  bastinado  is  the  punishment  usually  inflicted  for  all 
minor  wickednesses  ;  or  if  imprisonment  be  added,  it- seldom 
exceeds  two  or  three  months,  so  that  no  man's  labour  is  lost 
to  the  community.  Thefts  are  checked  in  a  very  exemplary 
and  curious  manner  ;  the  malefactor's  right  hand  and  left 
foot  are  taken  off  and  suspended  several  days  in  a  place  of 
public  resort.  Executions  are  not  allowed  to  be  performed 
by  Mohammedans — a  sufficient  number  of  Jews  being  always 
kept  in  reserve  to  discharge  this  public  duty. 

The  religious  ceremonies,  whether  at  births,  deaths,  or 
marriages,  being  the  same  at  this  regency  as  in  other  Moham- 
medan states,  it  is  not  our  intention  to  enter  upon  any  minute 
description  of  them.  We  should  not,  however,  do  justice  to 
the  reader,  did  we  omit  to  abridge,  from  the  letters  written  at 
the  court  of  Tripoli,  an  account  of  a  visit  paid  by  an  English 
lady  to  the  family  of  the  pacha  in  his  formidable  castle.  On 
approaching  this  royal  residence,  you  pass  the  first  intrench- 
ments  escorted  by  the  hampers,  or  bodyguards  ;  after  which 
you  enter  the  courtyard,  usually  crowded  with  soldiers  wait- 
ing before  the  skiffer  or  hall,  where  the  kaya  sits  as  judge. 
This  is  the  principal  officer  belonging  to  his  highness,  and 
the  deepest  in  his  confidence  ;  without  whose  consent  no 
subject  can  obtain  an  audience  in  the  palace  even  on  the  most 


*  Ijetters  from  the  Mediterranean,  vol.  ii.,  p.  66. 


IMMEDIATE  DEPENDANCES. 


181 


important  business.  Beyond  this  hall  is  a  paved  square  with 
a  piazza  supported  by  marble  pillars,  in  which  is  built  the 
messeley,  or  council-chamber,  where  the  pacha  holds  his 
levees  on  gala-days.  It  is  finished  on  the  outside  with  Chi- 
nese tiles,  a  number  of  which  form  an  entire  painting;  and  a 
flight  of  variegated  marble  steps  leads  up  to  the  door  of  it. 
The  nubar,  or  royal  band,  performs  with  great  ceremony  be- 
fore the  door  of  the  messeley  every  afternoon,  when  the  third 
marabout  announces  the  prayers  of  lazzero  at  four  o'clock, 
and  on  the  whole  of  V/ednesday  night,  being  the  eve  of  the 
accession  to  the  throne.  No  one  on  any  account  can  pass 
the  music  while  it  plays,  and  certain  officers  of  state  attend 
during  the  whole  of  the  performance.  Before  it  begins,  the 
chief,  or  captain  of  the  chouses,  who  in  this  instance  must  be 
considered  as  a  herald,  goes  through  the  ceremony  of  pro- 
claiming the  pacha  afresh.  The  sounds  of  the  nubar,  it  is 
said,  are  singular  to  a  European  ear,  being  produced  by  the 
turbuka,  a  sort  of  kettle-drum,  the  reed,  and  the  timbrel ;  the 
first  belongs  to  the  Moors,  the  two  latter  to  the  negroes.* 

The  numerous  buildings  added  to  the  castle  form  several 
streets,  at  the  end  of  which  is  the  bagnio  where  the  Chris- 
tian slaves  are  kept.  No  gentlemen  are  permitted  to  ap- 
proach nearer  the  harem,  or  ladies'  apartments,  than  the 
place  just  named  ;  and  from  hence  you  are  conducted  by  eu- 
nuchs through  long  vaulted  passages,  so  extremely  dark  that 
it  is  with  great  difficulty  the  way  can  be  discerned.  On  en- 
tering the  harem  a  striking  gloom  prevails.  The  courtyard 
is  grated  over  the  top  with  heavy  iron  bars,  very  close  to- 
gether, giving  it  a  melancholy  appearance.  The  galleries 
round  this  enclosure,  before  the  chambers,  are  fortified  with 
lattices  cut  very  small  in  wood.  The  pacha's  daughters,  when 
married,  have  separate  apartments  sacred  to  themselves  :  no 
one  can  enter  them  but  their  husbands  and  attendants,  eu- 
nuchs and  slaves  ;  and  if  it  is  necessary  for  the  ladies  to  speak 
in  the  presence  of  a  third  person,  even  to  their  father  or 
brother,  they  must  instantly  veil  themselves.  The  great 
number  of  servants  filling  up  every  avenue  renders  it  almost 
impossible  to  proceed  from  one  apartment  to  another.  "  We 
found  some  black  slaves  recently  brought  from  Fezzan  ex- 
tremely troublesome,  from  their  alarming  fears  created  at  the 

♦  TuUy's  Letters,  vol.  i.,  p.  57,  &c. 
Q 


182 


TRIPOi.1  AND  ITS 


sight  of  a  European's  dress  and  complexion.  A  miniature  on 
a  lady's  arm  was  taken  by  one  of  these  blacks  for  a  sheitan 
or  evil  spirit.  Its  resemblance,  though  on  a  small  scale,  to 
the  human  figure  was  so  strong  that,  on  suddenly  perceiving 
it,  she  uttered  convulsive  screams,  and  it  was  only  after  much 
persuasion  that  she  could  be  pacified.  It  is  dangerous  to 
come  in  their  way  with  costly  lace  or  beads  ;  the  first,  if  they 
are  suffered  to  touch,  they  quickly  pull  to  pieces  ;  and  the 
latter  they  instantly  bite  through  in  trying  if  they  are  genuine 
pearls. 

"  On  entering  the  apartment  of  Lilla  Kebbiera,  the  wife  of 
the  pacha,  we  found  her  seated  with  three  of  her  daughters. 
She  is  extremely  affable,  and  has  the  most  insinuating  man- 
ner imaginable.  She  is  not  more  than  forty  ;  but  her  age  is 
not  spoken  of,  as  it  is  against  the  Moorish  religion  lo  keep 
registries  of  births.  She  is  still  very  handsome,  a  fair  beauty 
with  blue  eyes  and  flaxen  hair.  On  visiting  this  sovereign, 
the  consuls'  wives  are  permitted  to  kiss  her  head  ;  their 
daughters,  or  other  ladies  in  their  company,  her  right  hand  : 
her  left  she  off'ers  only  to  the  dependants.  If  any  of  her 
blacks,  or  the  domestics  of  the  castle,  are  near  her,  they 
frequently  seize  the  opportunity  of  kneeling  down  to  kiss 
the  end  of  her  baracan  or  upper  garment. — The  bey,  her  el- 
dest son,  has  been  married  several  years,  having  entered  into 
wedlock  at  the  age  of  seven.  Indeed,  the  Moors  marry  so 
extremely  young  that  the  mother  and  her  firstborn  are  often 
seen  together  as  playmates,  equally  anxious  and  angry  in 
an  infantme  game.  The  women  here  are  frequently  grand- 
mothers at  twenty-six  or  twenty-seven  ;  and,  therefore,  it  is 
no  wonder  that  they  occasionally  live  to  see  the  children  of 
many  generations. — The  apartment  she  was  in  was  hung  with 
dark-green  velvet  tapestry,  ornamented  with  coloured  silk 
damask  flowers  ;  and  sentences  out  of  the  Koran  were  cut 
in  silk  letters  and  neatly  sewed  on,  forming  a  deep  border  at 
the  top  and  bottom  :  below  this,  the  walls  were  finished  with 
tiles  forming  landscapes.  The  sides  of  the  doorway  and  the 
entrance  into  the  room  were  marble  ;  and,  according  to  the 
custom  of  furnishing  here,  choice  china  and  crystal  encircled 
the  room  on  a  moulding  near  the  ceihng.  Close  beneath 
these  ornaments  were  placed  large  looking-glasses  with  frames 
of  gold  and  silver  ;  the  floor  was  covered  with  curious  mat- 
ting and  rich  carpeting  over  it :  loose  n^attresses  and  cush- 


IMMEDIATE  DEPENDANCES.  183 

ions,  placed  on  the  ground,  made  up  in  the  fonn  of  sofas, 
covered  with  velvet,  and  embroidered  with  gold  and  silver, 
served  for  seats,  with  Turkey  carpets  laid  before  them.  The 
coffee  was  served  in  very  small  cups  of  china,  placed  in  gold 
filigree  cups  without  saucers,  on  a  solid  gold  salver  of  an  un- 
common size,  richly  embossed.  This  massive  waiter  was 
brought  in  by  two  slaves,  who  bore  it  between  them  round  to 
each  of  the  company  ;  and  these  two  eunuchs  were  the  most 
richly-habited  slaves  we  had  yet  seen  in  the  castle  ;  they  were 
entirely  covered  with  gold  and  silver.  Refreshments  were 
afterward  served  up  on  low  and  beautifully  inlaid  tables,  not 
higher  than  a  ^oot  from  the  ground  ;  and  among  the  sherbets 
was  fresh  pomegranate-juice  passed  through  the  rind  of  the 
fruit,  which  gave  it  an  excellent  flavour.  After  the  repast, 
slaves  attended  with  silver  filigree  censers,  offering  at  the 
same  time  towels  with  gold  ends  woven  in  them  nearly  half  a 
yard  deep. — We  were  conducted  over  the  harem,  and  though 
it  was  daylight,  we  were  obliged  to  have  torches  on  account 
of  some  long  dark  passages  we  had  to  go  through.  Could 
the  subterranean  ways  and  hidden  corners  of  this  castle  tell 
the  secret  plots  and  strange  events  that  happen  daily  within 
its  walls,  they  would  be  most  extraordinary  to  hear.  When 
we  came  near  the  bagnio  of  the  Christian  slaves,  our  guide 
from  the  harem  quitted  us,  and  the  guards,  with  the  gentle- 
men who  had  waited  for  our  return,  conducted  us  through  the 
outer  fortifications."* 

The  history  of  Tripoli  is  so  closely  connected  with  the  an- 
nals of  the  Barbary  States  at  large,  that  it  would  prove  incon- 
venient to  enter  minutely  into  its  details.  Partaking  of  the 
ignorance  which  followed  the  conquest  of  the  Saracens  and 
the  ascendency  of  the  Turks,  it  ceased  to  engage  the  atten- 
tion of  Europe  till  the  ravages  committed  by  the  corsairs  in 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  excited  the  resentment 
of  Charles  V.,  the  German  emperor.  Having  subdued  the 
Tripolines,  he  put  their  city  under  the  government  of  the 
Knights  of  Malta,  who  kept  possession  of  it  till  the  year 
1551,  when  they  were  expelled  by  Sinan  Pacha  and  the  cel- 
ebrated Dragoot  Rais.  Returning  to  their  wonted  habits  of 
piracy,  the  Moors  in  1655  provoked  the  resentment  of  Crom- 
well, who  sent  Admiral  Blake  with  a  fleet  to  chastise  the  Tu- 


*  TuUy's  Letters,  vol.  i.,  p.  67. 


184 


TRIPOLI  AND  ITS 


nisians,  and  compel  the  other  states  to  submit  to  terms. 
Twenty  years,  however,  had  scarcely  elapsed,  when  it  be- 
came necessary  for  the  English  to  interpose  again,  as  well 
for  the  safety  of  their  trade  as  for  the  honour  of  the  Christian 
name.  Sir  John  Narborough,  in  1675,  with  a  squadron  of 
ships,  appeared  before  their  port,  to  punish  them  for  their 
frequent  breach  of  treaty.  The  gallant  manner  in  which  the 
boats  under  the  direction  of  Lieutenant  Shovel,  afterward  the 
renowned  Sir  Cloudesley,  made  an  attack  on  their  men-of- 
war  lying  in  the  harbour,  struck  them  at  once  with  amaze- 
ment and  terror.  Seeing  four  of  their  largest  vessels  de- 
stroyed under  their  batteries,  they  relinquished  all  hopes  of 
a  successful  resistance,  and  readily  acceded  to  the  conditions 
which  the  British  admiral  was  authorized  to  propose.  From 
that  period,  negotiation  alone  has  sufficed  to  secure  the  pro- 
tection due  to  a  triumphant  flag,  and  without  any  actual  ap- 
peal to  force.* 

The  Tripolitans  were  destined,  however,  to  receive  an- 
other severe  and  merited  chastisement,  after  the  lapse  of  more 
than  a  century,  from  a  nation  which,  at  the  time  of  Sir 
John  Narborough's  expedition,  had  no  distinct  existence. 
Immediately  after  the  termination  of  that  unfortunate  war, 
which  ended  in  the  recognition  by  England  of  American  in- 
dependence, the  commercial  enterprise  of  the  United  States 
began  to  display  itself  in  extraordinary  vigour  in  every  quar- 
ter of  the  globe  ;  and  but  a  few  years  elapsed  before  their  trade 
in  the  Mediterranean  became  so  extensive  and  important  as 
to  require  the  presence  of  a  naval  force  for  its  protection.  At 
first,  immunity  from  the  depredations  of  the  Barbary  States 
was  sought  to  be  secured,  after  the  long-established  Euro- 
pean mode,  by  treaties,  of  which  tribute  was  a  prominent  fea- 
ture ;  but  as  early  as  1798,  the  rising  republic  felt  herself 
strong  enough  to  look  with  disfavour  upon  this  means  of  pro- 
tection, and  to  resolve  upon  abandoning  it  with  the  first  op- 
portunity. In  1801,  such  an  opportunity  was  afforded  by  a 
dispute  which  broke  out  between  the  Pacha  and  Major  Ea- 
ton, the  American  consul,  a  man  of  great  courage  and  firm- 
ness, but  also  of  eccentric  habits,  rash,  headstrong,  and  oth- 
erwise not  well  qualified  to  fulfil  wisely  the  duties  of  that  of- 
fice among  a  people  so  reckless  of  all  moral  obligations  as  the 


*  Letters  from  the  Mediterranean,  vol.  ii.,  p.  82. 


IMMEDIATE  DEPENDANCES. 


1S5 


piratical  Moors.  The  immediate  result  of  this  dispute  was 
the  formal  suspension  of  the  consul's  functions  by  the  pacha, 
attended  with  the  ceremony  of  cutting  down  his  flagstaff. 
A  squadron  was  already  on  its  way  from  the  United  States, 
the  commander  of  which  was  charged  to  ascertain  the  state 
of  the  republic's  relation  with  the  Barbary  States,  and  arrived 
before  Tripoli  about  a  month  after  the  decisive  measure  ta- 
ken by  the  pacha,  as  mentioned  above.  Some  negotiations 
ensued,  but  without  effect  ;  and  hostilities  were  shortly  com- 
menced by  the  capture  of  a  Tripolitan  vessel  of  war,  and 
the  blockade  of  the  port.  During  this  blockade,  a  frigate, 
forming  part  of  the  American  squadron,  grounded  while  ma- 
king observations  in  the  harbour ;  she  was  fired  upon  by  the 
batteries,  and,  after  an  obstinate  resistance,  compelled  to  sur- 
render. Subsequently  she  was  got  off  the  rocks  by  great  ex- 
ertion, and  being  completely  refitted,  made  a  valuable  addi- 
tion to  the  pacha's  navy.  At  length  a  project  was  formed  of 
burning  her  ;  and  this  was  gallantly  accomplished  by  a  few 
American  sailors,  headed  by  Lieutenant,  afterward  Commo- 
dore Decatur,  who  gained  great  reputation  in  a  subsequent 
war  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 

Soon  after  this  the  squadron  attacked  the  batteries,  and  in 
a  furious  contest  that  lasted  nearly  five  hours,  destroyed  many 
of  the  pacha's  gunboats,  and  very  severely  injured  the  forti- 
fications and  the  town.  The  immediate  result  of  this  spirited 
proceeding  was  an  offer  on  the  part  of  the  pacha  for  a  renew- 
al of  negotiations  ;  but  as  he  insisted  upon  the  payment  of 
five  hundred  dollars,  equal  to  about  one  hundred  pounds  ster- 
ling, as  ransom  for  each  of  the  prisoners  taken  in  the  frigate, 
his  propositions  were  rejected,  and  the  blockade  still  contin- 
ued. 

In  the  meantime  an  attack  was  made  upon  him  from  another 
quarter,  involving  circumstances  of  a  character  so  novel  as 
to  merit  a  brief  recital.  The  reigning  pacha,  Jusef,  was  a 
usurper,  having  driven  from  the  throne  his  elder  brother  Ha- 
met  Caramalli,  who  was  now  residing  in  exile  at  Tunis. 

Hamet,  on  the  declaration  of  war  by  Jusef  against  the 
Americans,  conceived  that  an  opportunity  had  now  presented 
itself  for  the  recovery  of  his  throne  ;  and  to  that  end  proposed 
an  arrangement  to  the  consul  Eaton,  which  the  latter  at  once 
assented  to,  with  a  chivalrous  daring  more  allied  to  the  spirit 
of  a  knight-errant  informer  days  than  to  the  methodical  cus- 


186 


TRIPOLI  AND  ITS 


toms  of  modern  nations,  or  to  the  pacific  character  of  his  of- 
fice. He  set  out,  with  nine  American  sailors  and  about  twenty 
Greeks,  whom  he  had  induced  to  join  him,  in  search  of  Ha- 
met  CaramaUi,  with  whom,  after  a  long  and  fatiguing  march, 
a  junction  was  effected.  The  ex-pacha  had  mustered  an 
army  of  Arabs,  Turks,  and  Bedouins,  poorly  equipped  and 
organized,  not  exceeding  five  hundred  men  ;  and  with  these 
slender  forces  they  advanced  through  the  desert  to  attack  Ju- 
sef  by  land,  while  his  attention  was  occupied  by  the  naval 
operations  of  the  blockading  squadron.  Nearly  two  mo'tlhs 
w^ere  employed  in  forcing  their  way  across  the  Desert  of 
Libya  and  through  the  Cyrenaica  ;  they  had  set  out  on  the 
second  of  March,  and  it  was  not  until  the  twentieth  of  April 
that  they  reached  Derna,  the  second  town  of  the  n-'gency, 
within  view  of  the  sea,  and  defended  by  an  old  castle. 

After  a  sharp  attack  of  two  hours,  Derna  was  taken  by  as- 
sault, and  for  the  first  time  since  the  creation  of  the  world, 
the  American  flag  was  displayed  in  token  of  victory  within 
the  deserts  of  Africa.  As  soon  as  news  of  the  capture  reach- 
ed Jnsef,  he  lost  no  lime  in  proposing  terms  of  peac-;  ;  and 
a  gentleman  having  in  the  meantime  arrived  from  ths  United 
States  accredited  as  consul-general  to  all  the  Barbary  States, 
a  treaty  was  concluded  with  him  upon  terms  but  too  favour- 
able to  the  pacha.  Eaton  withdrew  in  mortification  ind  dis- 
appointment from  Derna,  and,  returning  to  the  United  States, 
died  soon  after  of  the  effects  of  a  wound  received  at  the  ta- 
king of  that  place,  heightened  and  irritated,  it  is  said,  by  vex- 
ation and  chagrin.  Smce  that  time,  the  flag  of  the  republic 
has  been  respected  by  the  Tripolitans. 

Down  to  the  year  1714,  the  Turks  exercised  the  govern- 
ment of  Tripoli — a  pacha  as  well  as  a  regular  army  being 
from  time  to  time  appointed  by  the  Porte,  for  the  maintenance 
of  authority  and  the  collection  of  tribute.  But  at  the  epoch 
now  mentioned,  a  revolution  took  place,  the  consequences  of 
which  have  been  perpetuated  to  the  present  day.  Hamet, 
usually  called  the  Great,  was  at  that  time  bey,  who,  upon  a 
temporary  removal  of  his  superior,  applied  to  the  sultan  for 
the  appointment,  and  obtained  it.  He  had  resolved  upon  a 
change  in  the  administration  of  affairs,  and  the  mode  by  which 
he  accomplished  his  object  was  truly  characteristic  of  the 
people  to  whom  he  owed  his  lineage.  In  the  course  of  twenty- 
four  hours  he  contrived  to  send  away  from  the  city  all  the 


IMMEDIATE  DEPENDANCES. 


187 


Turkish  soldiers  ;  and  at  his  palace,  not  far  distant,  he  an- 
nounced a  superb  entertainment,  to  which  he  invited  all  the 
principal  officers,  civil  and  military,  who  held  their  commis- 
sions from  Constantinople.  Three  hundred  of  these  unfortu- 
nate victims  were  strangled,  one  by  one,  as  they  entered  the 
skifier  or  hall — a  long  passage  with  small  dark  rooms  or  deep 
recesses  on  each  side,  in  which  a  hidden  guard  was  placed. 
The  soldiers  assassinated  the  Turks  one  by  one  as  they  ar- 
rived, and  dragging  the  bodies  out  of  sight,  removed  all 
ground  of  suspicion  until  the  whole  had  fallen  under  their 
hands.  Those,  too,  who  remained  in  the  city,  were  next  day 
found  murdered,  no  doubt  by  order  of  the  new  pacha  ;  but  no 
inquiry  was  anywhere  made,  with  the  view  of  discovering 
those  who  had  perpetrated  such  horrid  deeds.  Only  a  few  of 
the  proscribed  class  survived  to  tell  the  dreadful  tale.  Large 
presents,  it  is  said,  were  immediately  sent  to  Constantinople, 
to  appease  the  grand  seignior  ;  and  in  a  day  or  two  no  one 
dared  to  speak  of  the  Turkish  garrison  which  had  been  butch- 
ered with  so  much  cruelty  and  premeditation.  From  that  pe- 
riod the  direct  influence  of  the  Porte  was  greatly  lessened, 
the  government  being  seized  by  the  Moors,  who  have  ever 
since  retained  the  principal  authority,  though  they  continue 
to  acknowledge  the  Ottoman  emperor  as  their  sovereign  par- 
amount.* 

The  reign  of  Hamet  was  distinguished  for  great  talent  and 
activity.  He  carried  his  arms  into  the  interior,  reduced 
Fezzan  to  his  obedience,  and  the  still  more  savage  dis- 
tricts of  Ghariana  and  Messulata.  He  had  moreover  the 
merit  of  encouraging  ingenious  foreigners  to  settle  in  his  do- 
minions, and  thereby  improved  many  sources  of  national 
wealth,  particularly  the  manufacture  of  woollens  and  the 
preparation  of  the  finer  kinds  of  leather.  He  lived  till  the 
year  1745  ;  and  upon  his  demise  the  supreme  power  was  in- 
trusted to  his  second  son,  by  whom  it  has  been  transmitted, 
though  not  in  a  direct  line,  as  the  hereditary  right  of  the  fam- 
ily who  now  occupy  the  throne,  f 

«  Tully's  Letters,  vol.  i.,  p.  70. 

f  Blaqui^re,  vol.  ii.,  p.  86.  The  following  are  the  principal  of- 
ficers of  state  at  Tripoli  : — 

The  Pacha's  eldest  son  has  the  title  of  Bey,  and  usually  act» 
us  commander-in-chief, 


188 


TRIPOLI  AND  ITS 


Fezzan,  which  still  continues  tributary  to  the  descendants 
of  Hamet  the  Great,  is  bounded  by  Tripoli  on  the  north, 
by  the  Desert  of  Barca  on  the  east,  and  by  the  Sahara 
on  the  west  and  south.  The  greatest  length  of  the  culti- 
vated country,  from  north  to  south,  is  about  255  miles, 
and  its  breadth  200  miles,  from  east  to  west.  According 
to  Hornemann,  this  small  state  contains  100  towns  and 
villages,  of  which  Moorzuk  is  the  capital.  There  is  also 
Zuila,  which,  as  narrated  by  old  travellers,  possessed  mag- 
nificent ruins,  though  none  of  these  wonders  have  been  seen 
by  the  moderns.  During  the  south  wind,  the  heat  is  scarcely 
supportable  even  by  the  inhabitants,  who  on  such  occasions 
find  it  necessary  to  sprinkle  their  rooms  with  water,  in  order 
that  they  may  be  able  to  breathe.  The  winter,  however,  is 
not  so  mild  as  might  be  expected,  owing  to  a  cold  piercing 
north  wind,  which  completely  chilled  the  natives  when 
Hornemann  was  among  them,  and  obliged  this  enterprising 
discoverer  himself,  inured  as  he  was  to  the  more  frigid  cli- 
mate of  Europe,  to  have  recourse  to  a  fire.  Rain,  which 
seldom  falls  here,  is  enjoyed  only  to  a  very  limited  extent ; 
though  the  atmosphere  is  frequently  disturbed  by  hurricanes, 
and  darkened  with  clouds  of  dust  and  sand  from  the  contig- 
uous waste.  In  no  part  of  the  country  is  there  any  river  or 
stream  worthy  of  the  slightest  notice  ;  but  there  are  numer- 
ous springs  which  supply  sufficient  water  for  the  purposes  of 
irrigation.    The  whole  of  Fezzan,  indeed,  abounds  in  that 

The  Aga  commands  all  the  Turkish  soldiers  in  the  Pacha's 
pay,  now  not  exceeding  100. 

The  Kaya  or  Chiah  is  Grand  Judge  ;  presiding  all  day,  ex- 
cept from  twelve  till  three,  at  the  castle-gate. 

The  Hasnadar  Grande  is  the  chief  officer  of  the  treasury. 

The  Hasnadar  Piccolo  is  Treasurer  of  the  Household. 

The  Sheik  el  Bled  administers  the  laws  of  the  city  as  head 
magistrate. 

The  Mufti  is  the  head  of  the  priesthood. 

The  Kadi  is  judge  in  matters  respecting  the  Mohammedan 
faith. 

The  Mufti  and  Kadi  assist  the  Pacha  in  the  administration  of 
justice  when  in  full  divan. 

The  Kaids  are  the  governors  of  districts,  and  have  power  to 
raise  taxes  and  enforce  the  laws. 

The  Hi.jjis  are  private  secretaries  to  his  highness,  of  whont 
he  has  generally  two  or  three. 


IMMEDIATE  DEPENDANCES.  189 


element  at  a  moderate  depth  underground,  derived,  no  doubt, 
from  the  rains  which  moisten  the  hills  on  the  confines  of 
the  Desert,  and  spread  over  the  plain  among  the  loose  strata 
near  its  surface. 

The  population  has  been  estimated  by  recent  travellers  at 
60,000  or  70,000,  obviously  composed  of  a  mixed  people,  as 
is  made  manifest  by  the  variety  of  their  complexions.  The 
indigenous  race  is  of  middling  stature,  of  little  vigour,  of  a 
brown  colour,  black  short  hair,  a  regular  countenance,  and  a 
nose  less  flattened  than  that  of  the  negro.  As  to  religion, 
the  majority  are  Mohammedans,  though  it  is  remarked  that 
they  live  on  good  terms  with  such  as  still  adhere  to  the 
rites  of  paganism.  Their  houses,  we  are  told,  are  built  of 
sun-dried  bricks,  made  of  calcareous  and  argillaceous  earth  ; 
they  are  extremely  low,  and  receive  light  only  by  the  door. 
Dates  are  the  natural  produce  and  staple  commodity  of  this 
country  ;  figs,  pomegranates,  and  lemons,  also  come  to  per- 
fection. A  great  quantity  of  maize  and  barley  is  cultivated  ; 
but  as  the  inhabitants  do  not  raise  wheat  sufficient  for  their 
own  consumption,  they  receive  a  great  part  of  what  they  use 
from  the  Arabs,  who,  in  some  respects,  are  much  better 
husbandmen.  We  have  already  mentioned  that  caravans 
are  sent  hence  to  Tripoli,  Timbuctoo,  and  Bornou,  who  trade 
chiefjy  in  gold-dust  and  black  slaves  ;  in  pursuit  of  which  ob- 
jects they  proceed,  it  is  probable,  as  far  as  the  coast  of  Guinea. 

The  oasis  of  Augila,  as  well  perhaps  as  that  of  Siwah, 
likewise  belongs  to  the  Tripoline  sovereignty.  The  town, 
which  is  the  residence  of  a  bey,  is  described  as  small  and 
mean,  having  no  public  buildings  but  such  as  are  of  a  very 
wretched  aspect.  All  the  interest  attached  to  the  latter  state, 
indeed,  arises  from  its  being  the  site  of  the  celebrated  temple  of 
Ammon,  the  access  to  which,  in  ancient  times,  was  consid- 
ered as  almost  entirely  impracticable.  It  afforded  a  convenient 
station  for  the  trade  which  the  Cyrenians  carried  on  with  the 
central  parts  of  Africa,  whence  they  are  supposed  to  have  drawn 
the  gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones,  of  which  they  formed  the 
jewellery  and  those  other  works  of  taste  and  elegance  wherein 
they  excelled.  The  votive  columns,  ornamented  with  dol- 
phins, which  are  found  on  the  route  leading  from  Cyrene  to 
Ammon  ;  the  similarity  in  the  architecture  of  both  countries  ; 
and  the  journey  of  the  Cyrenians,  who  acted  as  guides  to 
Alexander  in  his  visit  to  the  temple  of  the  Libyan  deity, 


190 


TRIPOLI  AND  ITS 


prove  that  in  fact  the  relations  between  them  were  estab- 
lished long  before  the  reign  of  the  Macedonian  hero,  since  at 
that  period  they  appear  to  have  been  masters  of  the  oasis. 
The  extent  of  this  singular  territory  in  the  midst  of  an  ap- 
palling wilderness,  the  excellence  of  its  thermal  waters,  the 
fertiUty  of  its  soil,  and  its  advantageous  position  for  com- 
merce, explain  the  interest  which  it  constantly  excited  in  the 
civilized  nations  who  occupied  the  coast.  It  will,  as  M. 
Pacho  remarks,  be  the  same  again,  should  civilization  ever 
revisit  the  regions  which  it  has  so  long  abandoned. 

There  is  a  set  of  men  at  Tripoli  whom  Mr.  Blaquiere  con- 
siders as  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Psylli  or  Serpent- 
eaters,  who,  assuming  a  sacred  character,  are  regarded  at 
times  with  a  species  of  veneration.  Of  this  extravagant 
class  of  religionists  we  have  a  very  good  account  in  the  pages 
of  Captain  Lyon,  who  witnessed  one  of  their  periodical  exhi- 
bitions when  on  his  journey  in  Northern  Africa.  The  mara- 
bouts, he  tells  us,  are  of  two  denominations  ;  idiots,  who  are 
allowed  to  say  and  do  whatever  they  please  ;  and  men  pos- 
sessed of  all  their  senses,  who,  by  juggling  and  performing 
many  bold  and  disgusting  tricks,  establish  to  themselves  the 
exclusive  right  of  being  great  rogues  and  nuisances.  There 
are  mosques  in  which  these  people  assemble  every  Friday 
afternoon,  where  they  eat  snakes  and  scorpions,  affect  to  be 
inspired,  and  commit  the  most  revolting  extravagances. 

In  the  month  of  January  their  annual  festival  begins,  and 
continues  three  days  with  all  its  barbarous  ceremonies.  Be- 
fore the  day  on  which  it  commences,  the  great  marabout  is 
supposed  to  inspire  such  as  are  to  appear  in  the  processions, 
and  these,  according  to  their  abilities,  are  more  or  less  mad 
and  furious.  The  natural  &ols  are  always  ready  for  the  ex- 
hibition ;  and  it  is  amusing  to  observe  their  looks  of  aston- 
ishment at  being  on  this  occasion  more  than  any  other  brought 
into  public  notice.  During  the  time  they  parade  the  streets, 
no  Christian  or  Jew  can  with  any  safety  make  his  appear- 
ance, as  he  would,  if  once  in  the  power  of  these  wretches, 
be  instantly  torn  in  pieces.  Indeed,  if  any  person  professing 
either  of  the  hated  religions  shows  himself  on  a  terrace  or  at 
a  window,  he  is  sure  to  be  saluted  by  a  plentiful  shower  of 
stones  from  the  boys  who  follow  the  progress  of  the  infuriated 
saints. 

The  captain,  who  was  in  the  dress  of  the  country,  ventured 


IMMEDIATE  DEPENDANCES. 


191 


to  go  in  the  company  of  his  dragoman  to  the  mosque  from 
which  the  procession  was  to  set  out.  He  felt  that  his  situa- 
tion was  a  dangerous  one  ;  but,  being  resolved  on  the  attempt, 
he  dashed  into  the  crowd,  and  succeeded  in  getting  near  the 
performers,  who,  with  dishevelled  hair,  were  rapidly  turning 
round,  and  working  themselves  up  into  a  most  alarming  state 
of  phrensy.  A  band  of  barbarous  music  was  playing  to  them, 
while  several  men  were  constantly  employed  in  sprinkling 
them  with  rose-water.  When  thoy  were  sufficiently  excitec^ 
they  sallied  out  into  the  streets.  One  had  a  large  nail  run 
through  his  face  from  one  cheek  to  the  other  ;  and  all  of  them 
had  bitten  their  tongues  in  so  violent  a  manner  as  to  cause 
blood  and  saliva  to  flow  copiously.  They  were  half  naked, 
uttering,  at  short  intervals,  groans  and  howls  ;  and  as  they 
proceeded — sometimes  three  or  four  abreast,  leaning  on  each 
other — they  threw  their  heads  backward  and  forward  with  a 
quick  motion,  which  caused  the  blood  to  rise  in  their  faces, 
and  their  eyes  to  project  from  their  sockets  in  a  frightful 
manner.  Their  long  black  hair,  which  grew  from  the  crown 
of  the  head — the  other  parts  being  closely  shaven — was  con- 
tinually waving  to  and  fro,  owing  to  the  violent  agitation  in 
which  they  indulged.  One  or  two,  who  were  the  most  furi- 
ous, and  who  continually  attempted  to  run  at  the  crowd,  were 
held  by  a  man  on  each  side  with  a  rope,  or  by  means  of  a 
handkerchief  tied  round  the  middle.  Captain  Lyon  observed, 
that  whenever  the  marabouts  passed  the  house  of  a  Christian, 
they  affected  to  be  ungovernable,  and  endeavoured  to  get 
near  it,  pretending  they  had  made  the  discovery  by  smelhng 
out  unbelievers. 

Two  parties  were,  at  the  same  moment,  traversing  the 
town  ;  but  being  of  opposite  sects,  and  at  war  with  each 
other,  it  was  so  arranged  that  they  should  take  different 
routes.  That  which  our  countryman  did  not  see  was  the 
principal  one,  and  took  its  departure  from  under  the  walls  of 
the  castle.  It  was  headed  by  a  man  named  Mohammed, 
who  had  been  much  at  the  house  of  the  captain,  going  errands, 
and  attending  his  horses  ;  and  who,  before  the  time  of  the 
procession,  had  been  confined  in  a  dungeon,  in  consequence 
of  his  becoming  furious.  When  all  was  in  readiness  for  the 
ceremony,  the  pacha  took  his  station  at  the  balcony  overlook- 
ing the  arsenal ;  and  this  man  was  no  sooner  set  at  liberty, 
than  he  rushed  on  an  ass,  and  with  one  thrust  pushed  his 


192 


TRIPOLI,  ETC. 


hand  into  the  animal's  side,  from  which  he  tore  his  bowels, 
and  began  to  devour  them.  Many  ate  dogs  and  other  living 
creatures  ;  and  on  that  day,  a  little  Jew  boy  was  killed  in  the 
street  either  by  the  marabouts  or  their  followers.* 

Captain  Lyon  adds,  that,  notwithstanding  the  prohibition 
of  the  prophet,  drunkenness  is  more  common  in  Tripoli  than 
even  in  most  towns  of  England.  There  are  public  wine- 
houses,  at  the  doors  of  which  the  Moors  sit  and  drink  without 
any  scruple  ;  and  the  saldanah,  or  place  of  the  guard,  has 
usually  a  few  drunkards  to  disgrace  its  discipline.  Among 
the  better  sort  of  people,  too,  there  are  a  great  many  who 
drink  hard  ;  but  their  favourite  beverage  is  an  Italian  cor- 
dial, called  rosolia,  and  not  unfrequently  a  little  rum. 

The  intercourse  with  Europeans  is  commonly  carried  on 
in  a  corrupt  dialect,  composed  of  most  of  the  tongues  spoken 
along  the  northern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  It  has  even 
been  observed,  that  the  language  of  Tripoli,  as  used  by  the 
natives,  has  admitted  a  great  number  of  terms  from  the 
banks  of  the  Tiber  ;  and  that  all  such  ideas  as  are  foreign  to 
the  habits  of  an  Arab,  or  a  corsair,  are  expressed  in  the 
idiom  of  the  modern  Romans. 


*  Narrative  of  Travels  in  Northern  Africa,  p.  9, 


TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES.  193 


CHAPTER  VII. 

Tunis  and  ils  Dependances. 

Lands  included  in  the  Pachalic  of  Tunis — History  resumed — 
Abou  Ferez — His  Court,  Bodyguard,  and  Council— Invasion 
of  Tunis  by  Louis  IX. — Carthage  reduced — Suffering?  of  the 
French — Death  of  the  King — Arrival  of  the  Sicihan  Crusa- 
ders—Failure of  the  Expedition — Rise  of  the  two  Barbarossas, 
Horuc  and  Hayradin — The  former  invited  to  assist  the  King 
of  Algiers— He  murders  him  and  seizes  the  Government — 
The  Usurper  defeated  and  slain — Algiers  occupied  by  Hayra- 
din, who  courts  the  protection  of  the  Grand  Seignior — Plans 
an  attack  on  Tunis — Succeeds  in  his  Attempt — Excites  the 
Resentment  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V. — The  vast  Prepara- 
tions in  Italy  and  Spain — Barbarossa  prepares  for  Defence — 
The  Goletta  is  taken — A  general  Engagement  ensues — The 
Moors  are  defeated  and  Tunis  falls— The  Town  is  sacked 
and  plundered — Muley  Hassan  restored— Conditions — Ex- 
ploits of  Barbarossa — Spaniards  expelled  by  Selim  II. — Tu- 
nisians elect  a  Dey — Government  settled  in  a  Bey — Rise  of 
Hassan  Ben  Ali — Power  absolute — Administration  of  Jus- 
tice— Description  of  Tunis — Soil  and  Climate — Army — Su- 
perstitions—Manners and  Customs— Character  of  the  Moors 
— Avarice  of  the  lato  Bey — Population  of  the  Regency — 
Revenue — Intemperance — Anecdote  of  Hamooda — Descrip- 
tion of  Carthage — Cisterns  and  Aqueduct — Remains  of  a 
Temple — Appearance  during  the  Fourth  and  Fifth  Centuries 
—Details  by  Edrisi — Remark  by  Chateaubriand — Bizerta — 
Utica — Hammam Leif— Sidi  Doud — Kalibia— Ghurba — Nabal 
— KefF— Tubersoke— Herkla — Sahaleel — Monasteer — Lemp- 
ta — Agar — Demass — Salecto — Woodlif — Gabes — Jemme  — 
Sfaitla— Gihna — Casareene — Feriana. 

Tunis,  though  the  smallest  of  the  Barbary  States,  is  by 
no  means  the  least  important.  Comprehending  the  territory 
which  once  belonged  to  Carthage,  it  affords  to  the  reader 
many  interesting  recollections,  and  still  presents  the  memori- 
als of  some  of  the  most  striking  events  that  mark  the  history 
of  those  great  nations  which  contended  for  universal  empire 
on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean. 

R 


194        TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES. 


The  lands  included  in  this  pachalic  consist  chiefly  of  a  pen- 
insular projection  on  the  African  coast,  stretching  into  the 
sea  in  a  northeasterly  direction  so  as  to  approach  within  less 
than  100  miles  of  the  Island  of  Sicily.  The  river  Zaine,  or 
Tusca,  forms  the  western  boundary,  separating  it  from  the 
dominion  of  Algiers.  From  Cape  Ronx,  in  longitude  9°  30' 
E.,  and  latitude  37°  N.,  the  coast  extends  eastward  to  Cape 
Bon,  with  a  slight  inclination  to  the  north.  After  turning 
that  point,  it  takes  a  southeastern  direction,  terminating  at 
the  populous  island  of  Jerba,  where  it  touches  the  border  of 
Tripoli — the  whole  forming  an  irregular  line  nearly  500 
miles  in  length.  The  breadth,  reckoning  from  north  to 
south,  varies  from  100  to  200  miles,  according  as  the  Atlas 
range,  which  divides  it  from  the  Blaid  al  Jerid,  approaches 
or  retires  from  the  sea.  The  only  rivers  of  importance  are 
the  Mejerdah — the  Bagrada  of  Roman  authors  —  which, 
after  winding  through  a  picturesque  and  fertile  country,  falls 
into  the  Mediterranean  between  Cape  Carthage  and  Porto 
Farina  ;  and  the  Wad  el  Kebir — the  ancient  Ampsaga — 
which  finds  its  outlet  into  the  same  great  basin  thirty  miles  east 
of  Jigel.  The  Gulf  of  Tunis,  one  of  the  safest  in  this  part  of 
the  world,  runs  up  between  Cape  Bon  and  Cape  Farina  ; 
and,  including  the  bay,  its  compass  is  about  120  miles,  in 
every  section  of  which  there  is  excellent  anchorage  not  far 
from  the  land.- 

In  our  general  history  of  the  Northern  Shores  of  Africa, 
we  brought  down  the  annals  of  this  petty  monarchy  until  it 
v^ras  subdued  by  the  Saracens.  It  was  mentioned  that  the 
victorious  Arabs  placed  the  seat  of  their  government  at  Kair- 
wan,  where  a  viceroy,  with  the  title  of  Emir,  or  Prince  of 
the  Believers,  was  invested  with  supreme  power.  This 
species  of  delegated  authority,  amid  various  wars  and  partial 
revolutions,  continued  till  the  year  1206,  when  a  combina- 
tion of  events  elevated  the  Almahades,  a  new  dynasty, 
to  the  throne  of  Morocco,  with  a  jurisdiction  which  ex- 
tended over  all  the  provinces  of  Barbary.  The  governor, 
whom  this  family  nominated  to  Tunis,  soon  aspired  to  inde- 
pendence, and  left  his  son,  Abou  Ferez,  in  the  possession  of 
so  much  influence  as  enabled  him  to  contend  with  his  sov- 

*  Blaquiere,  vol.  ii.,  p.  135.  Conder's  Dictionary  of  Geogra- 
phy, p.  673.    Balbi,  Abrege  de  G^ographie,  p.  879. 


TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES.  195 


creign  for  the  command  of  the  whole  country,  and,  finally,  to 
acquire  the  local  honours  of  sultan.  His  court  is  said  to 
have  been  regulated  in  the  most  splendid  manner,  and  his 
system  of  administering  public  affairs  is  extolled  as  at  once 
moderate  and  successful.  His  bodyguard  consisted  of  1,500 
Christians,  besides  which  he  had  always  on  foot  an  immense 
army  to  repel  invasion.  There  was  also  a  national  council, 
composed  of  300  persons,  distinguished  for  their  probity  and 
experience,  without  whose  advice  he  undertook  nothing  of 
importance.  This  comparatively  happy  condition  was  a 
long  time  enjoyed  by  the  Tunisians,  though  they  suffered  an 
occasional  annoyance  from  the  kings  of  Fezzan,  who  had 
assumed  a  warlike  attitude,  and  even  advanced  at  the  head 
of  their  tumultuary  followers  to  the  margin  of  the  great  sea. 
It  may  therefore  be  asserted,  that  the  government  of  Tunis 
was  not  exposed  to  any  serious  interruption  till  the  beginning 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  when  Muley  Hassan  was  deposed 
by  Hayradin  Barbarossa — an  occurrence  which  we  shall  im- 
mediately explain  with  some  degree  of  minuteness.* 

In  the  year  1270,  when  this  regency  was  under  the  do- 
minion of  a  prince  whom  the  French  historians  call  Omar 
El  Muley  Moztanca,  Louis  IX.  was  induced  to  invade  its 
shores.  To  religious  motives,  which  at  that  time  were  pro- 
fessed by  all  the  sovereigns  of  Europe,  there  was  added  in 
this  case  a  strong  political  consideration.  The  pirates  of 
Tunis  infested  the  Mediterranean  ;  they  intercepted  the  suc- 
cours sent  to  the  Christian  armies  in  Palestine  ;  and  they 
furnished  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  with  horses,  arms,  and  troops. 
The  destruction  of  this  haunt  of  banditti  was  therefore  a 
point  of  some  consequence,  as  it  would  facilitate  future  ex- 
peditions to  the  Holy  Land.  The  crusaders  accordingly  en- 
tered the  bay  in  the  month  of  July,  and  took  possession  of 
the  native  land  of  Hannibal  in  these  words  : — "  We  put  you 
to  the  ban  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  of  Louis,  king  of 
France,  his  lieutenant." 

This  monarch  resolved  to  reduce  Carthage,  on  the  ruins 
of  which  several  new  edifices  had  been  recently  built,  before 
he  laid  siege  to  Tunis,  then  an  opulent,  commercial,  and 
fortified  city.  He  dislodged  the  Saracens  from  the  tower 
which  defended  the  cisterns  ;  the  castle  was  carried  by  as- 


*  Letters  from  the  Mediterranean,  vol.  ii.,  p.  229. 


196        TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES. 


sault,  and  the  new  city  followed  the  fate  of  the  fortress  ; 
but,  says  Chateaubriand,  no  sooner  had  Louis  crossed  the 
seas  than  prosperity  seemed  to  forsake  him  ;  as  if  he  had 
been  always  destined  to  exhibit  to  the  infidels  a  pattern  of 
heroism  in  adversity.  He  could  not  attack  Tunis  till  he  had 
received  the  re-enforcements  with  which  his  brother,  the  King 
of  Sicily,  had  promised  to  join  him.  Being  obliged  to  in- 
trench himself  on  the  isthmus,  the  army  was  attacked  by  a 
contagious  disease,  which  in  a  few  days  swept  away  half  of 
his  troops.  The  African  sun  consumed  men  accustomed  to 
live  beneath  a  milder  sky.  To  increase  the  sufferings  of  the 
French,  the  Moors  raised  the  burning  sand  by  means  of  ma- 
chines, and,  scattering  it  before  the  southern  breeze,  ex- 
posed the  Christians,  by  this  fiery  shower,  to  the  effects  of 
the  kamsin,  or  terrible  wind  of  the  desert.  Incessant  en- 
gagements exhausted  the  remains  of  their  strength  :  the  liv- 
ing were  not  sufficient  to  bury  the  dead,  whose  bodies  were 
thrown  into  the  ditches  of  the  camp,  which  were  soon  com- 
pletely filled  with  them. 

The  principal  nobility  and  the  king's  favourite  son,  the 
Count  of  Nevers,  had  already  expired,  when  Louis  found 
himself  attacked  by  the  disease.  He  was  sensible  from  the 
first  moment  that  it  would  terminate  fatally,  and  that  this 
shock  could  not  fail  to  overpower  a  body  worn  out  with  the 
fatigues  of  war,  the  cares  of  a  throne,  and  those  painful 
vigils  which  he  devoted  to  religion  and  to  his  people.  Feel- 
ing his  end  approaching,  he  desired  to  be  placed  upon  a  bed 
of  ashes,  where  he  lay  with  his  hands  folded  upon  his 
bosom,  and  his  eyes  raised  towards  heaven.  Meantime  the 
fleet  of  the  Sicilian  monarch  appeared  on  the  horizon, 
while  the  plain  and  hills  were  covered  with  the  army  of  the 
Moors.  Amid  the  wrecks  of  Carthage,  the  Christian  army 
presented  an  image  of  the  profoundest  grief ;  a  deathlike 
silence  pervaded  it,  and  the  expiring  soldiers,  leaving  the  hos- 
pitals, craM'led  over  the  ruins  to  approach  their  dying  monarch. 

At  this  crisis  the  trumpets  of  the  Sicilian  crusaders 
sounded,  and  their  ships  touched  the  shore,  bringing  succours 
which  were  no  longer  available.  This  signal  not  being  an- 
swered, their  royal  commander  was  astonished,  and  began  to 
apprehend  some  disaster.  He  landed  ;  he  beheld  the  senti- 
nels with  their  pikes  reversed,  while  the  dejection  visible  in 
their  faces  expressed  their  grief  much  more  sti\,..^'y  than 


TUNIS  AND  ITS  BEPfiNDANCES. 


197 


this  mark  of  military  mourning.  He  flew  to  the  tent  of  his 
brother,  and  found  him  extended  lifeless  on  the  humble  bed 
which  he  had  chosen.  The  expedition  which  had  been  the 
fruit  of  so  much  care,  and  was  attended  with  such  intense 
suffering,  now  proved  to  have  been  undertaken  in  vain.* 

More  than  100  years  elapsed  before  the  affairs  of  Tunis 
again  attracted  the  notice  of  Christian  states.  About  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  a  sudden  revolution  hap- 
pened, which,  by  rendering  the  seaports  of  Barbary  formida- 
ble to  Europeans,  has  made  their  history  more  worthy  of 
attention.  This  event  was  brought  to  pass  by  two  individ- 
uals born  in  a  low  rank  of  life — Horuc  and  Hayradin — sons 
of  a  potter  in  the  Isle  of  Lesbos.  These  youths,  prompted 
by  a  restless  spirit,  forsook  their  father's  trade,  ran  to  sea, 
and  joined  a  crew  of  pirates,  among  whom  they  soon  distin- 
guished themselves  by  their  valour  and  activity.  Having 
collected  several  ships,  the  elder  brother,  who,  from  the  red 
colour  of  his  beard,  obtained  the  name  of  Barbarossa,  was 
appointed  admiral,  while  Hayradin  was  nominated  second  in 
command.  They  called  themselves  the  friends  of  the  sea, 
and  the  enemies  of  all  who  sailed  upon  it ;  and  their  char- 
acters soon  became  terrible,  from  the  walls  of  Constantinople 
to  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar. 

A.  D.  1516.  As  their  fame  and  power  extended,  so'  did 
their  ambitious  views  ;  and  while  acting  as  corsairs,  they 
gradually  adopted  the  ideas  and  acquired  the  talents  of  con- 
querors. Their  attention  was  naturally  drawn  to  the  coast 
of  Barbary,  as  a  convenient  situation  for  an  establishment 
whence  they  might  send  forth  their  cruisers  against  the  com- 
mercial states  of  Christendom.  An  opportunity  soon  oc- 
curred for  accomplishing  their  object.  The  King  of  Algiers, 
having  tried  several  times,  without  success,  to  take  a  fort 
which  the  Spanish  governor  of  Oran  had  built  in  the  vicinity 
of  his  capital,  was  induced  to  apply  for  aid  to  Barbarossa, 
whose  valour  and  skill  were  highly  prized.  The  wily  pirate 
gladly  accepted  the  invitation  ;  and  leaving  his  brother  Hay- 
radin with  the  fleet,  he  marched  at  the  head  of  5,000  men  to 
Algiers,  as  the  ally  of  Eutami,  the  shortsighted  monarch. 
Such  a  force  gave  him  the  command  of  the  town  ;  and  see- 

*  Travels  in  Greece,  Palestine,  Egypt,  and  Barbary,  vol.  ii. 
p.  298. 

R3 


198        TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES. 


ing  no  reason  to  apprehend  a  serious  opposition  on  the  part 
of  the  native  troops,  he  forthwith  murdered  their  sovereign 
and  proclaimed  himself  king  in  his  stead.  His  liberality  to 
the  several  chiefs  procured  their  acquiescence  in  this  violent 
change  ;  upon  which  he  attacked  the  neighbouring  ruler  of 
Tremezen,  whom  he  vanquished  in  battle  and  deprived  of 
his  lands.  At  the  same  time  he  continued  to  infest  the 
coasts  of  Spain  and  Italy  with  fleets,  which  resembled  the 
armaments  of  a  great  nation  rather  than  the  light  squadrons 
of  a  piratical  commander. 

A.  D.  1518.  Their  frequent  and  cniel  devastations  obliged 
the  Emperor  Charles  V.  to  furnish  the  Marquis  de  Co- 
mares,  governor  of  Oran,  with  troops  sufficient  to  attack 
him.  This  officer,  assisted  by  the  dethroned  king  of  Tre- 
mezen, executed  the  commission  with  such  spirit,  that 
Barbarossa,  being  beaten  in  several  encounters,  shut  himself 
up  in  the  capital  of  the  prince  just  named.  After  defending 
it  to  the  last  extremity,  he  was  overtaken  in  attempting  to 
make  his  escape,  and  slain,  while  he  fought  with  an  obsti- " 
nate  courage  not  unworthy  of  his  former  exploits. 

The  sceptre  of  Algiers  now  fell  to  Hayradin,  who  is  like- 
wise known  to  history  by  the  epithet  of  Red-beard.  His 
ambition  and  abilities,  which  were  not  inferior  to  those  of  his 
brother,  were  seconded  by  a  more  propitious  fortune.  Dread- 
ing the  vengeance  of  the  Europeans,  and  the  treachery  of 
his  own  subjects,  he  put  his  dominions  under  the  protection 
of  the  grand  seignior,  and  received  from  him  in  return  a  body 
of  Turkish  troops  sufficient  for  his  security  against  domestic, 
as  well  as  foreign  enemies.  As  the  fame  of  his  achieve- 
ments daily  increased,  Solyman  offered  him  the  command  of 
his  fleet,  as  the  only  person  whose  skill  and  resolution  enti- 
tled him  to  take  the  sea  against  Andrew  Doria,  the  greatest 
admiral  of  that  age.  Proud  of  this  distinction,  he  repaired  to 
Constantinople,  where  he  gained  the  entire  confidence  of  the 
sultan  and  his  vizier.  To  them  he  communicated  a  scheme 
which  he  had  formed  for  making  himself  master  of  Tunis,  the 
most  flourishing  kingdom  at  that  time  on  the  coast  of  Africa  ; 
and  this  being  approved  by  them,  he  obtained  whatever  force 
or  other  means  he  demanded  for  carrying  it  into  execution. 

His  principal  hopes  in  this  expedition  were  founded  on  the 
intestine  divisions  which  then  prevailed  in  the  kingdom  of 
Tunis.    Muley  Hassan,  the  youngest  son  of  Mohammed,  the 


TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES.  199 


late  ruler  of  that  country,  had,  through  the  influence  of  his 
mother,  been  raised  to  the  government,  and  signalized  the 
beginning  of  his  reign  by  putting  to  death  all  the  members 
of  his  family  whom  he  could  get  into  his  power.  Alraschid, 
one  of  the  eldest  of  his  brothers,  finding  a  retreat  among  the 
Arabs,  made  several  attempts  to  recover  his  throne  ;  but  fail- 
ing of  success,  and  being  apprehensive  that  his  faithless  allies 
would  deliver  him  up  into  the  hands  of  the  tyrant,  he  im- 
plored the  protection  of  Barbarossa,  who  received  him  with 
every  mark  of  friendship  and  respect.  Being  about  to  sail 
for  Constantinople,  he  easily  prevailed  upon  the  unfortunate 
prince  to  accompany  him  thither  ;  assuring  him  that  the 
h«ad  of  the  empire  would  make  haste  to  redress  his  wrongs, 
and  lend  to  his  cause  the  most  effectual  aid,  in  men  as  well 
as  in  the  munitions  of  war.  It  was  then  that  the  treacherous 
pirate  opened  to  the  sultan  his  plan  for  reducing  Tunis  to  the 
obedience  of  the  Turks  ;  making  use  of  Alraschid's  name, 
and  co-operating  with  the  party  who  longed  for  his  restora- 
tion. 

A  powerful  fleet  and  numerous  army  were  soon  assembled  ; 
but  the  unhappy  son  of  Mohammed  was  not  permitted  to  ac- 
company them,  being,  at  the  very  moment  the  expedition 
was  about  to  sail,  arrested  by  the  order  of  his  imperial  high- 
ness, and  thrown  into  confinement.  Barbarossa  in  due  time 
appeared  before  Tunis,  announcing  to  the  inhabitants  that  he 
had  come  to  assert  the  rights  of  their  legitimate  sovereign. 
Muley  Hassan,  whose  severe  rule  had  alienated  the  affec- 
tions of  his  subjects,  soon  found  himself  compelled  to  fly  ; 
the  people  took  arms  in  behalf  of  their  exiled  prince  ;  and 
the  gates  were  opened  to  the  valiant  hero  who  had  with  so 
much  apparent  generosity  espoused  his  interests.  But  when 
Alraschid  himself  did  not  appear,  and  when,  instead  of  his 
name,  that  of  Solyman  alone  was  heard  among  the  acclama- 
tions of  the  foreign  soldiers,  the  citizens  began  to  suspect 
the  duplicity  of  which  they  had  been  made  the  victims.  It 
was  in  vain  for  the  conqueror  to  repeat  his  asseverations,  that 
their  king  had  been  left  sick  on  board  the  admiral's  galley ; 
their  apprehensions  and  resentment  could  not  be  calmed ; 
they  accordingly  resumed  their  weapons  with  the  utmost 
fury,  surrounding  the  castle  into  which  he  had  led  his  troops. 
But  he,  having  foreseen  such  a  result,  was  not  unprepared 
for  it ;  he  immediately  turned  against  them  the  artillery  on 


200        TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES. 


the  rajTiparts  ;  and  soon  forced  them  to  acknowledge  the 
grand  seignior  as  their  lord  paramount,  and  to  submit  to 
himself  as  his  lieutenant. 

The  fortunate  corsair  lost  no  time  in  preparing  for  what- 
ever attack  might  be  made  upon  him  from  within  or  from 
without.  He  strengthened  the  citadel  which  commands  the 
town,  and  fortified  the  Goletta  in  a  regular  manner,  making 
it  the  principal  station  for  his  fleet,  and  the  great  arsenal  for 
naval  as  well  as  military  stores.  He  now  resumed  his  depre- 
dations on  the  Christian  states  with  more  destructive  violence 
than  ever  ;  spreading  his  cruisers  over  the  whole  of  the  Med- 
iterranean. The  eyes  of  all  the  maritime  powers  were  di- 
rected to  the  emperor,  whose  territories  in  Italy  and  Spain 
were  exposed  in  a  particular  manner  to  the  ravages  of  the 
Tunisian  plunderers.  At  the  same  time,  Muley  Hassan,  who 
in  his  turn  had  become  a  supphant,  apphed  to  Charles  as  the 
only  person  who  could  effectually  assert  his  rights  in  opposi- 
tion to  so  formidable  a  usurper. 

A.  D.  1535.  Having  made  due  preparations  for  war  upon 
the  barbarian  chief,  the  emperor  set  sail  on  the  16th  July 
from  Cagliari,  in  Sardinia,  his  fleet  consisting  of  nearly  five 
hundred  vessels,  and  having  on  board  some  of  the  best-disci- 
plined troops  in  Europe.  The  united  strength  of  his  domin- 
ions, indeed,  had  been  called  out  to  take  part  in  an  enterprise 
in  which  he  was  about  to  hazard  his  glory.  A  Flemish  squad- 
ron had  conveyed  from  the  harbours  of  the  Low  Country  a 
body  of  German  foot ;  the  galleys  of  Naples  and  Sicily  took 
on  board  the  vet  .  ran  bands  of  Italians  and  Spaniards  who 
had  distinguished  ;;hemselves  by  so  many  victories  over  the 
French  ;  he  himself  embarked  at  Barcelona  with  the  flower 
of  the  Spanish  nobility,  and  was  joined  by  a  considerable  flo- 
tilla from  Portugal,  commanded  by  Don  Louis,  brother  to  the 
emperess.  Andrew  Doria  conducted  his  own  ships,  the  best 
appointed  at  that  time  in  Europe,  and  directed  by  the  most 
skilful  officers.  The  Pope  furnished  all  the  assistance  in  his 
power  towards  so  pious  an  undertaking ;  and  the  Knights  of 
Malta,  the  avowed  enemies  of  the  infidels,  equipped  some  light- 
sailing  vessels,  which,  though  small,  were  rendered  formidable 
by  the  valour  of  their  crews  and  commanders.  Doria  dis- 
charged the  office  of  high-admiral ;  while  the  Marquis  de  Guas- 
ta  acted  under  his  master  as  lieutenant-general  of  the  army. 

Barbarossa,  who,  in  the  meantime,  remained  not  ignorant 


TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES.  201 


of  these  immense  preparations,  had  recourse  to  the  most 
vigorous  and  prudent  means  for  the  defence  of  his  new  con- 
quest. He  summoned  his  cruisers  from  their  different  sta- 
tions ;  drew  from  Algiers  his  whole  disposable  force  ;  and 
despatched  messengers  to  all  the  African  princes,  whom  he 
contrived  to  alarm  by  the  intelligence  that  the  Christian  pow- 
ers had  combined  to  extirpate  the  Mohammedan  faith  on  the 
southern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  This  appeal  to  their 
bigotry  and  national  pride  was  answered  by  the  appearance  of 
20,000  horsemen,  with  a  large  body  of  foot,  under  the  walls 
of  Tunis.  But  his  trust  was  chiefly  reposed  in  the  Turkish 
soldiers,  most  of  whom  were  armed  and  disciplined  after  the 
European  fashion,  and  in  the  strength  of  the  Goletta,  which 
had  been  carefully  supplied  with  all  things  necessary  to  with- 
stand a  protracted  siege.  The  command  of  the  garrison  was 
confided  to  Sinan,  who,  though  a  Jew  by  birth,  had  professed 
his  belief  in  the  prophet,  and  was  esteemed  the  boldest  and 
most  experienced  of  all  the  piratical  leaders.  His  courage 
and  talents,  however,  were  found  unavailing  against  the  bat- 
teries which  played  upon  the  iort,  from  the  sea  as  well  as  the 
land.  The  place  was  taken  by  storm  on  the  25th  July,  when 
the  Tunisian  fleet,  amounting  to  nearly  ninety  sail,  the  ar- 
senal, and  about  three  hundred  pieces  of  brass  cannon,  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  assailants. 

The  son  of  the  Lesbian  potter,  though  he  felt  the  full 
weight  of  the  blow  which  he  had  received,  did  not  sink  un- 
der it.  Despairing,r  however,  of  defending  the  walls  of  the 
city  against  a  force  so  well  acquainted  with  all  the  arts  of 
attack,  he  resolved  to  advance  at  the  head  of  the  army, 
whose  numbers  were  not  under  50,000,  and  to  provoke  the 
invaders  to  an  engagement.  He  proposed,  at  the  same  time, 
to  his  principal  officers,  that,  as  there  were  10,000  Christians 
confined  in  the  citadel,  a  general  massacre  should  be  ordered 
before  they  marched,  as  it  would  prove  extremely  hazardous, 
should  the  Moslem  be  worsted  in  the  field,  to  have  so  large 
a  body  of  men  menacing  their  rear.  They  all  warmly  ap- 
proved of  the  intention  to  fight ;  but,  inured  as  they  were  to 
scenes  of  bloodshed,  the  suggestion  as  to  the  Nazarene  slaves 
filled  them  with  horror.  It  was  therefore  resolved  to  spare 
their  lives  ;  though  the  issue  proved  that  the  humanity  of 
Barbarossa  was  more  at  fault  than  his  foresight  or  policy. 
The  Europeans,  who,  encamped  aimd  the  sand,  would 


S02        TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES. 


soon  have  suffered  from  the  intemperance  of  the  climate, 
were  not  less  desirous  than  their  opponents  to  terminate  their 
labours  by  a  battle.  Each,  accordingly,  advanced  to  meet 
the  other.  The  Moors  and  Arabs  rushed  on  to  the  attack 
with  loud  shouts  ;  but  their  undisciplined  courage  could  not 
long  withstand  the  shock  of  regular  battalions  ;  and  though 
Barbarossa,  with  great  presence  of  mind,  endeavoured  to 
rally  them,  the  rout  soon  became  so  general,  that  he  himself 
was  hurried  along  with  them  in  their  flight  back  to  the  city. 
There  he  found  every  thing  in  the  utmost  confusion  ;  some 
of  the  inhabitants  preparing  for  flight  ;  others  ready  to  throw 
open  the  gates  to  the  conquerors  ;  the  Turkish  soldiers  on 
the  point  of  retreating ;  and  the  citadel,  which,  in  different 
circumstances,  might  have  afforded  him  some  refuge,  already 
in  the  possession  of  the  Christian  captives.  These  unhappy 
men,  rendered  desperate  by  their  situation,  had  laid  hold  on 
the  opportunity  which  Redbeard  dreaded.  As  soon  as  the 
army  was  at  some  distance  from  the  town,  they  prevailed 
upon  the  keepers  to  knock  off  their  fetters  ;  and  bursting 
open  the  prisons,  they  overpowered  the  Turkish  garrison,  and 
turned  the  artillery  of  the  fort  against  their  savage  masters. 
Filled  with  rage  and  disappointment,  the  Viceroy  of  Tunis 
left  the  scene  of  his  former  triumph,  and  fled  with  precipita- 
tion to  Bona. 

Charles  proceeded  slowly  towards  the  city,  not  knowing 
that  it  was  already  secured  for  him  by  the  insurrection  of 
the  Christian  prisoners,  and  that  all  regular  opposition  had 
ceased.  It  is  probable  that  he  would  have  treated  with  len- 
ity a  people  who  had  been  insnared  into  rebellion,  and  com- 
pelled to  acknowledge  a  foreign  crown,  while  they  imagined 
that  they  were  fighting  for  their  lawful  sovereign.  But  the 
impatience  of  his  victorious  troops  prevented  all  deliberation  ; 
for,  fearing  lest  they  should  be  deprived  of  booty,  they  rushed 
suddenly  and  without  orders  into  the  tovm,  and  began  to  kill 
and  plunder  without  distinction.  Above  thirty  thousand  of 
the  innocent  inhabitants  perished  on  that  unhappy  day,  and 
ten  thousand  were  carried  away  as  slaves.  Muley  Hassan 
took  possession  of  a  throne  surrounded  with  carnage,  abhor- 
red by  his  subjects,  on  whom  he  had  brought  such  calamities, 
and  pitied  even  by  those  whose  rashness  had  been  the  occa- 
sion of  them.  The  emperor  lamented  the  fatal  accident 
which  had  stained  the  lustre  of  his  victory  ;  and  amid  such  a 


TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES.  203 


scene  of  horror  there  was  but  one  spectacle  that  afforded  him 
any  satisfaction.  Ten  thousand  Christian  slaves,  among 
whom  were  several  persons  of  distinction,  met  him  as  he  en- 
tered the  town  ;  and,  falling  on  their  knees,  thanked  and 
blessed  him  as  their  deliverer. 

At  the  same  time  that  Charles  made  good  his  promise  lo 
the  Moorish  king,  of  re-establishing  him  in  his  dominions,  he 
did  not  neglect  what  was  necessary  for  bridhng  the  power  of 
the  African  corsairs,  for  the  security  of  his  own  subjects  and 
the  interests  of  his  dominions.  In  order  to  gain  these  ends, 
he  concluded  a  treaty  with  Muley  Hassan  on  the  following 
conditions  : — "  That  he  should  hold  the  kingdom  of  Tunis  in 
fee  of  the  Spanish  crown,  and  do  homage  to  the  emperor  as 
his  liege-lord ;  that  all  the  Christian  slaves  now  within  his 
territory,  of  whateirgr  nation,  should  be  set  at  liberty  without 
ransom  ;  that  no  subject  of  the  emperor  should  for  the  future 
be  detained  in  servitude  ;  that  no  Turkish  corsair  should  be 
admitted  into  any  of  his  ports  ;  that  free  trade,  together  with 
the  unrestrained  exercise  of  their  religion,  should  be  allowed 
to  all  the  emperor's  subjects  ;  that  Charles  should  not  only 
retain  the  Goletta,  but  that  all  the  other  seaports  in  the  king- 
dom which  were  fortified  should  be  put  into  his  hands  ;  that 
Muley  Hassan  should  pay  annually  12,000  crowns  for  the 
subsistence  of  the  Spanish  garrison  in  the  Goletta  ;  that  he 
should  enter  into  no  alliance  with  any  of  the  emperor's  ene- 
mies, and  should  present  to  him  every  year,  as  an  acknowl- 
edgment of  his  vassalage,  six  Moorish  horses,  and  as  many 
hawks."  Having  thus  settled  the  affairs  of  Tunis,  the  vic- 
torious monarch  returned  home  ;  being  prevented  by  tempes- 
tuous weather,  and  the  appearance  of  sickness  among  his 
troops,  from  pursuing  Barbarossa,  who  could  not  be  expected 
to  resign  power  without  a  farther  struggle.* 

The  subsequent  portion  of  this  adventurer's  career  may  be 
partly  traced  in  the  maritime  war  which  succeeded  the  alli- 
ance formed  between  the  Grand  Turk  and  Francis  the  First. 
In  the  year  1543,  he  sailed  with  a  fleet  of  a  hundred  and  ten 
galleys,  and,  coasting  along  the  shore  of  Calabria,  made  a 
descent  at  Reggio,  which  he  plundered  and  burnt ;  and,  ad- 
vancing from  thence  to  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber,  he  stopped 

♦  See  History  of  the  Reign  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  voL 
iil,  p.  90 ;  and  Cardomie.  Hist,  de  I'Afrique,  tome  lii.,  p.  55-73. 


204        TUNIS  AND   ITS  DEPENDANCES. 


there  to  water.  The  citizens  of  Rome,  ignorant  of  his  inten- 
tions, and  filled  with  terror,  began  to  fiy  with  such  genera! 
precipitation,  that  the  city  would  have  been  totally  deserted 
had  not  an  assurance  been  given  by  the  French  envoy  that 
no  violence  would  be  offered  to  any  state  on  friendly  terms 
with  the  king  his  master.  From  Ostia,  the  pirate-chief 
directed  his  course  to  Marseilles,  where  he  was  joined  by  the 
Count  D'Enghien,  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  armament ; 
whence,  after  a  short  delay,  the  combined  squadrons  proceeded 
towards  Nice.  There,  to  the  astonishment  and  scandal  of 
all  Christendom,  the  lilies  of  France  and  the  crescent  of 
Mohammed  appeared  in  conjunction  against  a  fortress  on 
which  the  cross  of  Savoy  was  displayed.  In  short,  the  assist- 
ance received  from  Solyman  was  attended  with  so  much 
odium,  that  the  Gallic  monarch  dismissed  Barbarossa,  who, 
after  ravaging  at  pleasure  the  coast  of  Naples  and  Tuscany, 
returned  with  his  ships  to  Constantinople. 

The  successors  of  Muley  Hassan  held  Tunis  till  1574, 
when  the  Spaniards,  who  protected  them,  were  expelled  by 
Sultan  Selim  II.,  who  wrested  the  Goletta  from  Philip,  and 
put  an  end  to  the  Moorish  dynasty.  The  Turks  assumed 
the  government,  which  was  administered  by  the  aid  of  a 
large  body  of  janizaries,  and  a  divan  chiefly  composed  of  mil- 
itary men.  At  length  the  people,  who  complained  loudly  of 
the  tyranny  exercised  upon  them  by  their  new  rulers,  were 
permitted,  after  the  manner  of  the  Algerines,  to  elect  their 
own  dey — an  officer  whose  functions  approached  nearer  to 
royalty  than  those  formerly  discharged  by  the  pacha.  The 
first  of  these  did  not  long  enjoy  his  dignity,  being  assassi- 
nated soon  after  his  elevation.  He  was  succeeded  by  Ibra- 
him, who,  perceiving  the  danger  with  which  he  was  sur- 
rounded, relinquished  his  authority  and  retired  to  Mecca ; 
assuming  for  this  purpose  the  pretext  of  devotion,  though  ob- 
viously influenced  by  the  fear  of  encountering  a  fate  similar 
to  that  which  had  carried  off  his  predecessor.  In  fact,  of 
twenty-three  who  were  raised  to  this  perilous  distinction, 
only  five  escaped  murder  or  expulsion. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the  beys  of 
Tunis  became  possessed  of  the  chief  authority.  A  regular 
monarchy  was  then  established  ;  and  Mohammed  Bey,  the 
author  of  the  revolution,  was  made  the  first  sovereign.  But 
this  new  order  of  things  was  no  sooner  established  than  de- 


TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES.  205 


ranged ;  for  the  Dey  of  Algiers,  taking  offence  at  the  Tu- 
nisians, laid  siege  to  their  city,  drove  their  monarch  from  his 
throne,  and  substituted  in  his  place  Ahmed  Ben  Chouques. 
The  fugitive  prince,  however,  vvho  soon  collected  a  band  of 
followers  among  the  Arabs,  recovered  his  right  by  force  of 
arms,  and  at  length  bequeathed  the  supreme  power  to  his 
brother,  whose  name  was  Pvamadan.  The  mild  character  of 
this  last  promised  his  subjects  a  tranquil  reign  ;  but  their 
hopes  were  disappomted  by  the  guilty  ambition  of  his  nephew 
Morat,  who  rebelled  against  him,  and  took  away  his  life. 
Of  this  usurper  the  government  was  cut  short  by  Ibrahim 
Cherif,  a  Turk,  who  put  a  period  to  it  by  assassinating  him  in 
the  month  of  June,  1702.  The  author  of  such  a  benefit  was 
by  the  people  judged  worthy  of  the  succession  ;  but  as  the 
fortune  of  war  was  uny)ropitious  to  him,  he  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Algerines,  and  afterward  obtained  his  liberty  only  to  lose 
his  head.  The  army  elected  Hassan  Ben  Ali,  the  grandson 
of  a  Greek  renegado,  to  be  his  substitute  ;  and  with  ttiis  ob- 
scure personage  originated  the  family  which  has  held  the 
sceptre  of  Tunis  without  interruption  until  the  present  day. 

Ambition  and  treason  have  no  doubt  repeatedly  disturlDed 
the  succession  among  brothers  and  cousins,  who,  in  order  to 
possess  even  a  precarious  authority,  hesitated  not  to  imbrue 
their  hands  in  one  another's  blood.  But  since  1782,  peace 
and  security  have  generally  prevailed.  The  remembrance  of 
past  calamities,  and  the  example  of  Algiers,  have  taught  the 
Tunisians  to  guard  against  the  restless  disposition  of  the 
Turks,  and  to  exclude  them  carefully  from  any  share  in  the 
government.  The  beys  have  therefore  endeavoured  to  abol- 
ish, by  degrees,  the  power  which  they  had  usurped  ;  they 
have  made  a  point  of  keeping  them  out  of  all  the  important 
places  of  administration  ;  and  suffered  them  to  fill  such  only 
as  have  but  a  mere  shadow  of  influence  attached  to  them. 
Thus,  though  the  reigning  family  may  be  looked  upon  as 
Turkish,  since  Hassan  Ben  Ali,  their  founder,  was  descended 
from  a  Greek,  the  actual  government  is  nevertheless  decided- 
ly Moorish.* 

It  is  mentioned  by  a  late  traveller,  that  the  authority  of  the 
bey,  which  was  originally  in  some  degree  limited,  is  now  be- 
come practically  absolute,  so  that  the  members  of  the  divan 


♦  Ohateaubdaad's  Travels,  vol.  ii.,  p,  352.  Memoir  on  TmiA 


206  TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES. 


have  little  weight  on  his  decisions.  When,  therefore,  they 
are  called  together,  it  is  merely  to  give  a  colour  to  his  pro-, 
ceedings  ;  and  though  by  the  letter  of  the  constitution  they 
are  invested  with  the  privilege  of  electing  their  ruler,  whose 
office  is  not  strictly  hereditary,  the  decision  in  this  important 
matter  is  usually  pronounced  by  the  relatives  of  the  deceased 
monarch,  who  are  supposed  to  be  best  acquainted  with  the 
talents  of  the  royal  progeny.* 

The  bey  is  supreme  magistrate  and  judge  in  his  own  do- 
minions. He  passes  a  considerable  part  of  each  day  in  the 
hall  of  justice,  and  constant  habits  of  observation  have  made 
him  such  a  physiognomist,  that,  where  self-interest  does  not 
interfere,  the  judgment  has  been  seldom  found  to  err.  It  is 
highly  interesting  to  those  Europeans  who  visit  the  palace, 
to  see  the  crowds  that  constantly  resort  to  the  tribunal  of  his 
highness  ;  for  the  easiest  access  is  atforded  to  all  classes  of 
his  subjects,  to  whose  complamts  and  grievances  a  patient 
ear  is  directed.  Without  the  intervention  of  lawyers,  his 
sentence  is  speedily  pronounced,  and  not  less  promptly  ex- 
ecuted ;  for,  on  hearing  the  respective  parties,  and  examining 
the  evidence  on  both  sides,  he  makes  a  sign  with  his  hand — 
an  indication  known  only  to  his  officers— denoting  the  pun- 
ishment which  is  to  be  inflicted,  whether  bastinado,  imprison- 
ment, or  the  more  severe  penalty  of  death. 

But,  leaving  the  history  of  this  barbarian  state,  we  shall 
advert  very  briefly  to  the  actual  condition  of  its  principal 
towns,  and  the  manners  of  the  inhabitants.  Tunis  itseh",  the 
capital  of  the  pachalic,  stands  on  the  western  brink  of  a  lake 
between  twenty  and  thirty  miles  in  circumference,  wh'ch  com- 
municates with  the  gulf  through  the  narrow  entrance  of  the 
Goletta.  The  strength  of  the  place  consists  in  the  several 
fortresses  which  command  this  approach,  and  which  were 
formerly  thought  capable  of  defying  the  strongest  fleets  in 
Europe.  When  Blake,  on  the  occasion  already  mentioned, 
presented  himself  on  the  coast  to  demand  reparation  fur  the 
injuries  inflicted  on  the  commerce  of  England,  the  dey  de- 
sired him  to  look  at  the  castles  of  Porto  Farina  and  Goletta, 
and  do  his  utmost.  The  admiral  required  not  to  be  roused 
by  such  a  bravado  ;  he  drew  his  ships  close  up  to  the  forts, 
and  tore  them  in  pieces  with  his  artillery.    He  sent,  a  numer- 


*  Blaqui^re,  vol.  ii.,  p.  234. 


TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES.  207 


ous  detachment  of  sailors  in  their  longboats  into  the  harbour, 
and  burnt  every  vessel  that  lay  there.  This  bold  action, 
which  its  very  temerity,  perhaps,  rendered  safe,  was  executed 
with  little  loss,  and  filled  all  that  part  of  the  world  with  the 
renown  of  his  country's  valour.* 

The  city  itself  is  placed  on  a  rising  ground,  but  has  never- 
theless the  great  disadvantage  of  being  encompassed  by 
swamps  and  marshes,  which,  in  a  less  favourable  climate, 
would  render  it  extremely  unhealthy.  It  is  supposed  to  be 
about  three  miles  in  circumference,  and  to  contain  nearly 
150,000  inhabitants.  The  number  of  houses  has  been  com- 
puted at  12,000,  though  it  is  acknowledged  that  they  are 
neither  lofty  nor  magnificent.  The  town,  according  to  Mr. 
M'Gill,  is  surrounded  with  a  miserable  wall  of  mud  and  stone, 
fitted  neither  for  ornament  nor  for  use.  The  buildings  are 
of  mean  architecture  ;  the  whole  city  not  presenting  one 
worthy  of  description.  "  The  bey,"  says  he,  "  is  erecting  a 
palace,  which,  when  finished,  may  perhaps  be  handsome  ;  but 
it  is  buried  in  a  dirty  narrow  street ;  and,  that  nothing  may  be 
lost,  the  ground-floor  is  intended  for  shops.  He  is  also  build- 
ing extensive  barracks  for  his  soldiers.  The  streets  are  nar- 
row, dirty,  and  unpaved  ;  the  bazars  are  of  the  poorest  ap- 
pearance, and  but  indifferently  stocked  with  merchandise. 
The  inhabitants  who  crowd  their  miserable  alleys  present  the 
very  picture  of  poverty  and  oppression."! 

It  was  at  one  time  the  intention  of  his  highness  to  drain 
the  lake,  and  to  form  a  channel  in  which  vessels  of  burden 
might  proceed  to  the  town,  where  a  handsome  port  was  to  be 
prepared,  fitted  to  contain  not  only  merchantmen,  but  also 
the  national  ships  of  war.  Many  obstacles,  however,  arose 
to  prevent  the  execution  of  this  princely  design.  The  with- 
drawing of  the  water  from  so  large  a  surface  might,  it  was 
said,  create  bad  air,  and  the  country,  which  had  just  been 
scourged  by  the  pestilence,  might  again  be  visited  by  disease. 
The  engineers  were  also  of  opinion  that  ten  years  would  be 
necessary  to  complete  the  work,  with  the  labour  of  10,000 
slaves,  and  a  great  outlay  of  money  and  materials.  For  these 
reasons  the  plan  was  abandoned,  and  he  has  contented  him- 

*  Hume's  History  of  England,  vol.  vii.,  p.  254. 

i  Account  of  Tunis,  p.  56.  Mr.  M'Gill  remarks,  that  the  pop- 
ulation must  be  great ;  but  in  Mohammedan  countries  it  is  not 
permitted  to  number  the  people. 


208 


TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES. 


self  with  constructing  a  small  harbour  at  the  Goletta.  Into 
this  vessels  of  moderate  size  can  enter  through  a  handsome 
canal  built  of  stone,  in  which  there  are  at  all  times  fifteen 
feet  of  water.  We  may  add,  that  the  lake  is  daily  becoming 
more  shallow,  and  will,  it  is  probable,  at  no  distant  date,  ac- 
complish by  natural  means  the  object  on  which  Hamooda  was 
willing  to  expend  so  much  labour  and  wealth. 

The  climate  of  Tunis  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world,  and 
admirably  adapted  for  the  production  of  most  of  those  articles 
which,  for  the  supply  of  Europe,  are  brought  from  an  im- 
mense distance.  All  the  coast  of  Barbary  is  capable  of  bear- 
ing cotton,  sugar,  and  spices  of  almost  every  kind.  Indigo 
and  silk  might  also  be  procured  with  a  little  care.  The  soil, 
too,  throughout  the  whole  state,  is  remarkably  good,  and, 
with  scarcely  any  cultivation,  renders  to  the  husbandman  an 
astonishing  return.  The  district  to  the  eastward  gives  in  a 
good  year  even  a  hundred  fold.  But  the  contrast  is  great 
when  the  usual  rains  are  withheld.  The  ground  then  be- 
comes arid  and  steril ;  the  seed  perishes  in  the  furrow  ;  the 
olive  appears  shrivelled  and  withered  ;  and  the  flocks  die  for 
want  of  food.  Such,  it  is  said,  was  the  dreadful  spectacle 
in  1805,  when  thousands  of  human  beings,  as  well  as  of  the 
lower  animals,  sunk  under  the  pressure  of  famine. 

It  is  remarkable,  that  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the 
regency,  the  water  in  the  springs  is  either  salt  or  hot.  There 
are,  indeed,  some  fountains,  such  as  those  at  Zowan,  which 
supply  a  cool  and  refreshing  beverage  ;  but  the  water  used 
at  Tunis  is  that  which  is  collected  during  the  winter  in 
cisterns.  With  one  of  these  reservoirs  each  house  is  pro- 
vided ;  and  as  the  roofs  are  flat,  every  drop  of  rain  is  saved. 
On  this  subject,  it  is  not  undeserving  of  notice,  that  the 
natives  of  the  interior,  who  are  accustomed  to  their  salt  and 
tepid  currents,  not  only  experience  no  inconvenience  from 
such  an  unpalatable  draught,  but  even  prefer  it  to  the  more 
natural  state  of  the  liquid  in  streams  or  fountains.* 

Mr.  M'Gill  observes,  that  the  regency  of  Tunis  was  never 
on  so  respectable  a  footing  as  it  is  at  present ;  and  the  sub- 
ject never  before  enjoyed  such  independence,  and  so  great  a 
degree  of  protection  from  external  enemies.  The  troops  of 
Hamooda,  also,  are  better  paid  than  those  of  any  former 


Account  of  Tunis,  p.  62 


TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES.  209 


prince  ;  and  though  they  are  much  more  hke  a  band  of  free- 
booters than  a  regular  army,  yet  they  are  sufficient  to  keep 
in  check  his  principal  foes,  the  Algerines,  who  cannot  in  any 
respect  be  pronounced  better  soldiers.  It  is  presumed  that, 
under  his  successor,  Sidi  Hassan,  who  ascended  the  viceregal 
throne  in  1824,  the  progress  of  improvement  has  not  been 
checked. 

Thirty  years  ago,  a  Christian  could  scarcely  walk  through 
the  streets,  much  less  the  country,  without  being  insulted. 
This,  says  M.  Blaquiere,  seldom  occurs  now  ;  and  although 
the  hatred  of  the  natives  towards  the  Jews  and  Nazarenes  has 
not  subsided  in  the  least,  the  fear  of  punishment  is  a  certain 
bar  to  their  insolence.  Even  in  the  days  of  Dr.  Shaw,  he 
could  pronounce  the  Tunisians  the  most  civihzed  nation  of 
Barbary  ;  having  very  little  of  that  haughty  behaviour  which 
was  then  very  common  at  Algiers.  They  had  for  some 
years,  if  we  may  trust  to  his  favourable  report,  been  more  in- 
tent on  trade  and  the  improvement  of  their  manufactures  than 
upon  plundering  and  cruising. 

The  great  body  of  the  inhabitants  are  Moors  ;  the  number 
of  Jews  being  about  30,000,  while  the  Christians  are  not  sup- 
posed to  exceed  1,500.  The  people  of  Tunis  present  little 
in  manners  or  usage  peculiar  to  their  country,  or  which  may 
not  be  found  among  other  Mohammedans.  From  their  great 
ignorance,  they  are,  as  might  be  expected,  extremely  super- 
stitious ;  and  hence,  most  of  their  actions  are  guided  by 
omens,  signs,  or  prognostications.  In  their  religion,  too, 
they  are  thought  to  be  more  rigorous  than  their  brethren 
elsewhere.  Mosques  which,  even  in  Constantinople,  may  be 
visited  with  impunity,  would  at  Tunis  be  regarded  as  utterly 
profaned  were  they  entered  by  any  individual  not  of  their 
own  belief.  It  is  even  asserted,  that  for  such  an  offence  a 
Christian  would  forfeit  his  life. 

The  evil  eye  is  a  superstition  which  prevails  greatly  among 
the  African  Mussulmans.  If  a  horse,  mule,  or  any  domesti- 
cated animal  belonging  to  one  person  be  praised  by  another, 
it  is  considered  as  irretrievably  lost  ;  and  a  child  that  is  ad- 
mired is  expected  with  certainty  to  meet  some  misfortune. 
The  unlucky  omen  of  thirteen  sitting  down  at  the  same  table, 
has  no  less  influence  among  ignorant  Turks  and  Moors  than 
it  has  among  certain  classes  in  Europe,  who  maintain  that 
the  same  individuals  will  never  meet  again.  A  strange  be- 
S  2 


210         TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES. 


lief  obtains  among  the  people  of  Barbary,  which  they  say  is 
founded  on  an  ancient  prophecy,  that  their  country  is  to  be 
taken  from  them  on  a  Friday,  during  the  hour  of  prayer  at 
noon.  For  this  reason  the  gates  of  their  cities  are  carefully 
locked  during  that  service,  and  no  one  is  allowed  to  pass 
until  the  mid-day  devotion  is  ended.  It  is  also  predicted, 
that  the  country  is  to  be  taken  by  a  people  clothed  in  red  ; 
and  they  themselves  anticipate  that  this  exploit  is  to  be 
achieved  by  the  English.  "  It  will  certainly  be  a  matter  of 
regret,"  says  Mr.  M'Gill,  "  if  the  prophecy  is  not  fulfilled."* 

Before  their  armies  march  on  any  expedition,  the  astrolo- 
gers are  employed  to  watch  the  rising  of  a  particular  star. 
Should  it  attain  the  horizon  in  a  clear  sky,  they  augur  good, 
discharge  their  artillery,  and  plant  the  standard  round  which 
the  camp  is  to  be  formed  ;  but  if  it  rise  obscured  by  clouds 
or  by  a  fog,  they  consider  the  omen  unfavourable,  and  defer 
the  display  of  their  national  flag  until  another  day.  When 
the  camp  breaks  up,  which  is  usually  established  near  the 
bey's  palace,  a  pair  of  black  bulls  are  sacrificed  as  the  com- 
mander passes.  The  arrival  of  a  detachment  to  join  the  main 
army  was  attended  with  impressive  circumstances.  Before 
entering  the  gates  of  Tunis,  we  are  told,  they  grounded  their 
colours  and  arms,  knelt  down,  and  prayed.  After  this  cere- 
mony they  advanced  into  the  city  ;  when  the  ladies  from  the 
roofs  of  the  houses  saluted  them  with  their  "  loo-loo,''^  and 
the  men  answered  by  the  discharge  of  their  muskets. 

The  Moors  here  are  said  to  be  less  jealous  of  their  wives 
than  the  Turks.  The  latter  have  them  guarded  and  watched 
very  strictly,  whereas  the  former  allow  them  a  consider- 
able degree  of  freedom.  They  are  served  by  Christian 
slaves,  and  fear  less  to  be  seen  uncovered  by  them  than  by 
their  own  countrymen.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether 
this  greater  liberty  does  not  arise  from  the  contempt  or  in- 
difference with  which  they  regard  all  mankind  who  do  not 
profess  the  Mohammedan  faith.  The  cut  inserted  opposite 
represents  a  lady  of  condition,  accompanied  by  one  of  the 
other  sex  in  the  same  rank  of  society. 

The  Tunisians  have  a  curious  custom  of  fattening  their 
young  women  for  marriage.  A  girl,  after  she  is  betrothed, 
is  cooped  up  in  a  small  room,  when  shackles  of  gold  and  sil- 


♦  Account  of  Tunis,  p.  87. 


TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES.  211 


*  Moorish  Lady  and  Fashionable  Moor. 


ver  are  put  upon  her  ankles  and  wrists,  as  a  piece  of  dress. 
If  she  is  to  be  united  to  a  man  who  has  already  had  a  wife, 
the  shackles  which  the  former  spouse  wore  are  put  upon  the 
new  bride's  limbs  ;  and  she  is  fed  until  they  are  filled  up  to 
the  proper  thickness.  The  food  used  for  this  purpose,  wor- 
thy of  barbarians,  is  a  seed  called  drough ;  which  is  of  an 
extraordinary  fattening  quality,  and  also  famous  for  rendering 
the  milk  of  nurses  rich  and  abundant.  With  this  and  their 
natural  dish  cuscu$ou,  the  young  female  is  literally  crammed, 
and  many,  it  is  asserted,  die  under  the  spoon. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  observe,  that  a  plurality  of  wives 
is  allowed  in  Barbary  as  well  as  in  all  Mohammedan  coun- 
tries. A  man,  it  is  well  known,  may  have  four,  and  as  many 
concubines  as  he  can  maintain.  It  seldom  happens,  how- 
ever, that  a  Moor  has  more  than  two  at  the  same  time  ;  but 
the  ceremony  of  divorcing  them  is  .«;o  simple,  that  he  may 
change  as  often  as  he  finds  it  convGnicct. 


212         TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES. 


This  people  show  great  respect  to  their  dead  relations. 
On  holydays  they  are  to  be  seen  praying  at  their  tombs, 
which  are  kept  clean,  and  whitewashed  ;  and  any  infidel  who 
should  dare  to  enter  them  would  certainly  suffer  a  severe 
punishment  from  the  enraged  enthusiasts. 

We  require  not  to  be  told,  that  in  Barbary  the  fine  arts  are 
totally  abandoned  ;  and,  like  all  other  ignorant  tribes,  the 
Moors  seek  to  destroy  each  vestige  of  ancient  grandeur 
which  happens  to  remain  in  their  country.  Every  piece  of 
fine  marble  which  they  find  in  any  way  polished  or  sculptured, 
is  studiously  broken  to  atoms;  suspecting- from  its  weight, 
or  the  care  bestowed  upon  it,  that  it  must  contain  money. 
Statues  seldom  escape  mutilation  from  the  same  idea,  as  well 
as  from  their  abhorrence  of  idolatry — a  use  to  which  they 
imagine  such  works  must  originally  have  been  appropriated. 
They  have  no  paintings  in  their  houses  ;  and  the  extreme 
jealousy  of  the  government  renders  it  unsafe  for  any  who 
knows  the  principles  of  the  art  to  indulge  his  taste  even  in 
the  most  private  manner.  Their  music,  it  is  added,  is  of  the 
most  barbarous  kind  ;  the  braying  of  an  ass  is  sweeter  than 
their  softest  note,  whether  vocal  or  instrumental.* 

Mr.  M'Gill,  our  best  authority  on  this  subject,  has  a  very 
bad  opinion  of  the  character  of  the  Moors,  who,  he  says,  are 
proud,  ignorant,  cunning,  full  of  deceit,  avaricious,  and  un- 
grateful. In  dealing  with  these  barbarians,  he  a*lds,  it  is  a 
mistaken  notion  on  ths  part  of  Europeans  to  treat  them  either 
with  friendship  or  delicacy  ;  they  have  no  regard  for  either. 
If  they  do  not  commit  outrages  on  your  person  and  prop- 
erty, their  forbearance  proceeds,  not  from  justice  or  human- 
ity, but  from  fear  or  interest.  The  first  moment  that  oflTers  in 
which  they  may  with  impunity  defraud  or  plunder  a  Chris- 
tian, their  hatred  and  thievish  inclinations  will  be  gratified. 
In  order  to  be  respected  or  kindly  used  by  any  of  the  Bar- 
bary powers,  the  rod  must  be  kept  over  their  heads.  You 
must  begin  by  making  them  sensible  of  your  superiority. 
No  concession  must  be  granted  but  in  return  for  something 
equivalent,  and  not  until  it  has  been  repeatedly  requested  ; 
and  even  then  it  must  be  yielded  with  apparent  reluctance. 
Should  you  stand  in  need  of  any  thing  which  they  can  con- 
strue into  a  favour,  you  may  be  assured,  that  unless  through 


of  Tunis,  p.  80-92. 


TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES.  213 


fear,  interest,  or  some  other  base  motive,  your  wishes  will 
not  be  regarded  by  either  prince  or  subject ;  for  the  same 
want  of  faith,  honour,  gratitude,  and  generous  spirit,  begin- 
ning at  the  fountainhead,  runs  through  the  whole  polluted 
streani. 

As  an  example  of  the  spirit  which  prevails  at  Tunis,  it  may 
be  mentioned,  that  the  late  bey  reserved  to  himself  the  priv- 
ilege of  driving  in  a  carriage  with  four  wheels  ;  and,  there- 
fore, all  others,  natives  as  well  as  foreigners,  were  obliged  to 
satisfy  themselves  with  a  vehicle  havmg  only  two.  But  at 
length  he  was  smitten  with  the  desire  of  riding  in  a  gig  ;  and 
observing  that  the  American  consul  had  a  very  handsome 
one,  he  sent  for  it  with  no  other  apology  than  that  "  he 
needed  it,"  and  the  owner  might  find  another.  It  may  not  be 
necessary  to  remark,  that  he  did  not  get  it.  On  a  second 
occasion,  his  excellency  remarked  that  a  wine-merchant  had 
a  very  fine  mule,  which  he  thought  much  too  good  for  an 
individual  in  his  line  of  life.  He  therefore  demanded  it,  as  a 
very  suitable  animal  for  the  head  of  the  government  to  give 
away  in  the  shape  of  a  present ;  and  in  this  simple  manner 
he  contrived  to  maintain  the  state  of  a  sovereign  without 
encroaching  upon  the  funds  of  the  public  exchequer.* 

Revenge  is  considered  one  of  the  noble  qualities  of  a  Moor. 
He  retains  long  the  remembrance  of  an  injury,  and  will  ex- 
ert all  the  cunning  and  deceit  of  his  character  to  insnare  his 
enemy  and  satiate  his  resentment.  He  will  even  so  far  dis- 
guise his  feelings  as  to  show  stronger  marks  of  friendship, 
until,  having  lulled  suspicion  and  awakened  confidence,  he 
can  fall  at  unawares  upon  his  unsuspecting  foe.  Fighting 
this  people  with  their  own  weapons  is  one  mode  of  conquest, 
both  in  political  and  in  mercantile  concerns,  which  has  been 
occasionally  recommended  ;  and  it  has  been  seriously  argued, 
that  in  order  to  deal  with  them  to  advantage,  you  must  op- 
pose intrigue  to  intrigue,  and  injustice  to  injustice,  otherwise 
they  will  be  sure  to  overcome  you.  But  Mr.  M'Gill,  who 
was  professionally  engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits  at  Tunis, 
justly  remarks,  that,  though  this  maxim  has  been  much  fol- 
lowed, honesty  is  afier  all  the  best  policy  ;  and  that  a  man  on 
his  guard  against  their  weak  arts  will  render  them  entirely 
futile  by  a  systematic  determination  to  act  with  uniform  in- 


Account  of  Tunis,  p.  92. 


214         TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES. 


tegrity  himself,  and  never  in  any  degree  to  submit  to  imposi- 
tion from  them.* 

From  the  statements  already  made,  we  are  prepared  to  hear 
that  the  most  sordid  ideas  pervade  all  ranks  of  the  Moorish 
population.  Among  the  lower  class  it  is  curious  to  observe 
that,  when  called  upon  to  pay  their  dues  to  the  prince,  they 
uniformly  plead  inability,  and  make  use  of  every  protestation 
to  support  their  defence.  The  taxgatherer,  accustomed  to 
this  kind  of  apology,  immediately  puts  the  recusant  under  the 
bastinado  ;  upon  which  he  cries  out  at  the  highest  pitch  of 
his  voice  that  he  will  pay  all  he  owes,  and,  generally,  before 
rising  from  the  ground,  draws  forth  his  bag  and  satisfies  the 
collector.  On  an  occasion  of  this  kind,  a  gentleman  who 
siood  by  inquired  of  the  man  who  had  endured  this  cruel 
punishment,  why  he  did  not  pay  at  once  1  "What!"  he 
replied,  "  pay  my  taxes  without  being  bastinadoed  !  No ! 
no  !"  Such  conduct,  it  is  suggested,  may  arise  not  only 
from  great  ignorance  and  love  of  money,  which  makes  them 
hope  to  the  last  moment  that  they  will  escape,  but  also  from 
the  rapacious  nature  of  the  government,  which  renders  it 
dangerous  to  appear  rich.f 

The  population  of  the  regency  was  formerly  estimated  at 
five  millions — a  mere  conjecture,  however,  as  no  census 
takes  place,  and  no  authentic  records  are  kept.  It  is  admitted 
that  the  great  plague  and  famine  in  1805  cut  off  nearly  one 
half  of  their  numbers — a  statement  which,  though  not  a  little 
exaggerated,  coincides  accurately  enough  with  the  present 
aspect  of  the  country,  and  the  probable  amount  of  the  inhab- 
itants. The  great  majority,  of  course,  are  Moors  and  Arabs  ; 
the  Turks  are  not  thought  to  exceed  seven  thousand  ;  the 
Christians  are  not  more  numerous  ;  and  the  Jews  are  limited 
by  the  latest  calculation  to  a  hundred  thousand.  The  native 
Hebrews  are  distinguished  from  Mohammedans  by  their 
dress,  not  being  allowed  to  wear  the  red  cap  under  the  tur- 
ban ;  in  their  case  it  must  be  black,  or  dark-blue.  They  are 
sometimes  very  ill  treated,  but  are  not  liable  to  greater  exac- 
tions than  the  true  believers.  There  are  a  Roman  Catholic 
church  and  convent  in  Tunis,  besides  a  chapel  of  the  same 
communion  in  the  French  consulate.  The  number  of  mem- 
bers does  not  exceed  six  hundred,  and  they  are  all  under  the 


Account  of  Tunis,  p.  40. 


t  Ibid.,  p.  41. 


TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES.  215 


superintendence  of  a  Capuchin  friar.  The  Protestants  are 
still  fewer.  They  consisted,  at  no  distant  period,  of  the 
family  of  the  English  vice-consul,  those  of  the  Danish,  Swe- 
dish, and  American  consuls,  and  a  few  other  individuals  not 
attached  to  the  public  service.  Some  of  them  received  the 
sacrament  in  the  Greek  church,  and  availed  themselves  of 
the  services  of  the  priests  for  marriages,  baptisms,  and  buri- 
als. The  Greeks  amount  to  about  two  hundred,  of  whom 
forty  are  British  subjects,  and  a  hundred  and  sixty  belong  to 
the  Ottoman  government;  the  whole,  however,  viewed  as 
Christians,  are  under  the  protection  of  the  English  flag. 

The  revenue  of  Tunis  has  been  stated  at  twenty-four  mill- 
ions of  piasters,  or  rather  more  than  a  million  and  a  half  of 
English  money.  But  at  present  the  public  income  from  reg- 
ular sources  is  supposed  not  to  exceed  one  fourth  part  of  the 
sum  just  named.  The  ways  and  means  on  which  the  bey 
principally  relies  are  the  tithes  upon  the  cultivation  of  oil, 
corn,  and  other  products  of  the  land  ;  the  annual  returns  from 
his  own  grounds  ;  the  sale  of  permits  for  the  exportation 
of  oil  and  grain,  and  for  the  importation  of  wine  and  spirits  ; 
the  customs,  which  are  farmed  every  year  to  the  highest  bid- 
der ;  various  monopolies,  which  are  likewise  farmed  ;  the 
sale  of  places  under  government ;  a  taxation  on  the  Jews  ; 
and,  finally,  a  traffic  in  slaves.  To  these  may  be  added  oc- 
casional extortions  from  his  rich  subjects,  the  appropriation 
of  their  wealth  when  they  die,  and  his  profits  in  trade,  which, 
as  he  is  an  extensive  speculator  in  most  kinds  jf  merchan- 
dise, may  be  rated  at  a  considerable  amount.  It  is  not  im- 
agined, however,  that  his  highness  is  rich,  for  the  expenses 
of  his  administration  have  at  least  equalled  the  revenue.  His 
disputes  with  Algiers  have  given  rise  to  large  outlays,  as 
well  in  building  gunboats  as  in  maintaining  a  standing  army 
— circumstances  which  will  be  mentioned  particularly  here- 
after. 

Under  the  head  of  revenue,  the  reader  is  naturally  reminded 
of  the  remark  made  by  Dr.  Shaw,  that,  as  the  making  of 
wine  has  been  absolutely  prohibited,  the  duty  upon  foreign 
growths  has  increased  to  the  sum  of  50,000  dollars,  it  being 
computed  that  the  merchants  import  every  year  upward  of 
4,000  hogsheads — a  quantity,  says  he,  very  surprising  indeed, 
were  we  not  at  the  same  time  to  consider  the  great  mimber 


216        TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES 


of  Turks  and  Moors  who  drink  here  to  excess,  beyond  the 
practice,  perhaps,  of  any  other  nation.* 

An  aiiecdole  recorded  by  Mr.  M'Gill,  while  it  rather  con- 
firms the  charge  here  br'^ught  against  the  Tunisians,  reflects 
so  much  credit  on  the  memory  of  the  late  bey,  that  it  must 
not  be  omitted.  Kamooda,  it  is  confessed,  was  much  ad- 
dicted to  the  use  of  wine  ;  and  his  palace  had  more  the  ap- 
pearance of  being  occupied  by  a  northern  than  by  an  orien- 
tal prince.  His  slaves,  who  had  not  the  same  injunctions 
imposed  on  them  by  their  religion,  indulged  him  in  his  ex- 
cesses, and  became  his  companions  in  riot  and  revelry. 
Great  outrages  were  committed  by  them  when  under  the 
influence  of  strong  drink  ;  but  a  circumstance  vv^hich  happened 
during  one  of  his  debauches,  about  ten  years  after  he  came 
to  the  throne,  had  ever  afterward  a  salutary  effect  on  his 
conduct.  One  night  as  they  were  over  their  cups,  a  noise 
was  heard  in  the  courtyard  below.  The  bey  impatiently 
demanded  the  occasion  of  it  ;  and  finding  that  it  proceeded 
from  some  people  belonging  to  the  Dey  of  Algiers,  who  were 
also  making  merry,  he  ordered  his  prime  minister,  Mustapha, 
to  have  them  immediately  strangled.  This  prudent  counsel- 
lor, whose  reputation  for  wisdom  still  survives  in  Tunis,  re- 
ceived the  command,  but  contented  himself  with  putting  the 
offenders  in  prison,  and  telling  his  master  that  his  instruc- 
tions had  been  obeyed.  Next  morning,  when  the  effects  of 
his  intemperance  had  subsided,  his  highness  inquired  about 
the  Algerines.  Mustapha  reminded  him  of  the  order  which 
he  had  given  the  preceding  night.  Hamooda,  almost  frantic 
with  vexation  and  alarm,  asked  if  it  was  executed.  The 
other  replied  in  the  negative,  and  was  heartily  th^.nked  by  the 
bey,  who  now  saw  in  a  very  strong  light  the  cruelty  and 
injustice  of  the  sentence  which  he  had  pronounced.  From 
that  moment  he  never  tasted  wine  nor  any  species  of  intox- 
icating liquor,  t 

The  state  of  Tunis,  it  is  universally  acknowledged,  is 
much  more  interesting  for  what  it  once  was,  than  for  its 
modern  towns,  institutions,  or  manners.  As  the  country  in 
which  Carthage  stood,  and  wherein  were  fought  the  battles 
which  decided  the  fate  of  the  greatest  nations  of  antiquity, 

*  Travels  in  Barbary,  vol.  i.,  p.  172. 
i  Account  of  Tunis,  p.  SO. 


TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES.  217 


it  must  for  ever  possess  an  importance  that  ha)-dly  any  degree 
of  civilization  can  supersede.  Tiiis  famous  town  was  built 
upon  an  eminence  which  commands  a  most  extensive  view, 
both  towards  the  land  and  the  water,  and  appears  to  have  oc- 
cupied a  large  space  of  ground.  From  an  estimate  made^by 
Dr.  Shaw  on  the  spot,  he  concluded  that  the  whole  peninsula 
was  about  thirty  miles  rour^d,  and  that  the  city  may  have 
covered  nearly  one  half  of  its  area.  On  the  southeastern 
side,  the  sea  has  encroached  so  much  upon  the  shore,  that 
for  the  space  of  about  three  furlongs  in  length  and  half  a  fur- 
long or  more  in  breadth,  the  ruins  lie  entirely  under  water. 
In  rowing  along  the  beach,  the  common  sewers  are  frequent- 
ly discovered  ;  which,  being  well  built  and  cemented  togeth- 
er, the  great  lapse  of  time  has  not  been  able  to  impair.  The 
cisterns  are  other  structures  which  have  suffered  very  little  ; 
for  besides  those  belonging  to  private  houses,  which  are  nu- 
merous, there  are  two  sets  which,  it  is  evident  from  their 
magnitude,  must  have  been  the  property  of  the  public.  The 
larger  of  these  formed  the  grand  reservoir,  which  received 
the  water  conveyed  by  the  celebrated  aqueduct,  and  consist- 
ed of  moie  than  twenty  contiguous  cisterns,  each  of  them  at 
least  100  feet  long  and  thirty  broad.  The  smaller  establish- 
ment is  in  a  higher  situation,  near  the  byrsa  or  castle,  and 
seems  contrived  to  collect  the  rain  which  fell  upon  the  top  of 
it,  as  also  upon  some  adjacent  pavements  made  for  that  pur- 
pose. This  reservoir,  it  is  said,  might  be  repaired  at  a  small 
expense  ;  the  earthen  pipes,  through  which  the  water  was 
conducted  from  the  roof,  requiring  only  to  be  cleansed  and 
opened.* 

Besides  these,  adds  the  traveller  just  quoted,  there  are  no 
tokens  left  to  us  of  the  grandeur  and  magnificence  of  this  fa- 
mous place.  We  meet  with  no  triumphal  arches  or  sumptu- 
ous pieces  of  architecture  ;  here  are  no  granite  pillars  or  cu- 
rious entablatures  ;  but  the  broken  walls  and  structures  that 
remain  are  either  built  in  the  Gothic  taste,  or  according  to 
that  of  the  later  inhabitants.  These  remarks,  however,  ap- 
ply only  to  such  of  the  ruins  ks  respect  the  more  modern 
buildings  :  for  it  has  been  alteady  mentioned,  that  the  re* 
mains  of  columns,  displaying  all  the  beauty  of  the  Corinthian 
order,  are  to  be  found  scattered  over  the  contiguous  plain. 


♦  Travels  in  Barbary,  vol.  i.,  p.  164, 


218 


TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES. 


The  remains  of  the  grand  aqueduct  may  still  be  traced 
from  the  larger  reservoir  as  far  as  Zowan,  and  from  thence 
to  Zunghar,  a  distance  of  at  least  fifty  miles.  It  has  been  a 
work  of  extraordinary  labour  and  expense  ;  and  that  portion 
of  it  in  particular  which  runs  along  the  peninsula,  was  ele- 
gantly built  with  hewn  stone.  At  Arriana,  a  little  village 
two  miles  to  the  northward  of  Tunis,  is  seen  a  long  range  of 
arches,  all  of  them  entire,  seventy  feet  high,  supported  by 
columns  sixteen  feet  square.  Tlie  channel  that  conveyed 
the  water  lies  upon  these  arches,  being  high  and  broad 
enough  for  a  person  of  an  ordinary  size  to  walk  in.  It  is 
vaulted  above,-  and  plastered  in  the  inside  with  a  strong  ce- 
ment ;  which,  by  the  stream  running  through  it,  is  discoloured 
to  the  height-  of  about  three  feet.  This  sufficiently  shows 
the  capacity  of  the  channel  ;  but  as  there  are  several  inter- 
ruptions in  the  aqueduct,  sometimes  to  the  extent  of  three  or 
four  miles  together,  it  was  found  impossible  to  determine  the 
velocity  or  angle  of  descent,  so  as  to  ascertain  the  quantity 
of  water  that  might  be  every  day  conveyed  through  it  to  Car- 
thage. Both  at  Zowan  and  Zunghar  there  was  a  temple 
erected  over  the  respective  fountains  whence  this  copious 
supply  of  one  of  the  indispensable  necessaries  of  life  was  ob- 
tained. The  structure  at  the  latter  hamlet  appears,  from 
the  ornaments  still  remaining,  to  have  been  of  the  Corinthian 
order,  where  there  is  a  beautiful  dome,  adorned  with  three 
niches,  placed  immediately  over  the  spring.  These,  it  is 
more  than  probable,  were  intended  to  receive  certain  statues, 
representing  the  gods  who  were  imagined  to  preside  over 
running  streams  or  living  waters. 

Mr.  M'Gill  observes,  that  the  entire  space  between  Tunis 
and  Cape  Carthage  is  strewed  over  with  antiquities.  He 
mentions,  at  the  same  time,  that  the  greater  cisterns  are  now 
become  the  habitation  of  those  miserable  Bedouins  who  re- 
main in  this  part  of  the  country.  N.ear  the  smaller  ones, 
towards  the  sea,  are  the  ruins  of  an  immense  temple,  of 
which  nothing  is  now  left  but  rubbish,  if  we  except  the  sub- 
terranean passages,  whi.ch,  though  nearly  filled  up  by  the 
earth  that  has  been  thrown  into  them  by  the  rains  of  many 
centuries,  may  yet  be  followed  under  ground  to  a  great  ex- 
tent. The  whole  of  the  site,  of  ancient  Carthage,  indeed,  is 
occupied  by  similar  excavations — denoting  that  one  town  has 
been  built  on  the  scattered  fragments  ;of  another  much  more 


TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES.  219 


magnificent.  A  short  while  ago  an  edifice  was  discovered, 
oonststing  of  several  apartments,  in  a  tolerably  perfect  state, 
and  having  good  paintings  o.i  the  roof  of  one  of  the  rooms. 
The  adjoining  fields,  too,  are  sprinkled  with  small  pieces  of 
porphyry  and  verd-antique,  about  half  an  inch  thick  and  two 
or  three  square,  which  formed  a  sort  of  incrustation  on  the 
wails.  The  lofty  arches  seem  to  have  been  lined  with  rude 
mosaic-work,  composed  in  some  parts  of  marble,  in  others  of 
more  varied  materials.  On  Mount  Gamart,  westward  of  the 
cape,  are  evident  marks  of  an  ancient  catacomb,  the  dimen- 
sions of  which  must  have  been  considerable  ;  but  no  one 
dares  to  enter  it,  though  it  is  open  in  different  places.  Many 
medals,  chiefly  Roman,  are  found  in  every  district,  and  nu- 
merous cuMOusly-engraved  stones ;  but  the  Christians  at. 
Tunis  are  such  speculators  in  these  things,  that,  unless  at  a 
great  price,  none  can  be  procured,  even  though  of  small 
merit.* 

Such  are  the  scanty  remnants  of  a  city,  the  population  of 
which,  before  the  first  Punic  war,  amounted  to  700,000,  and 
which,  when  taken  by  Scipio,  could  not  be  destroyed  by  fire 
in  less  th&n  seventeen  days.  It  revived  from  its  ashes,  as 
we  have  already  remarked,  and  had  again  become,  in  the 
days  of  Strabo,  one  of  the  largest  towns  in  Africa.  Of  its 
condition  during  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries.  Gibbon  ob- 
serves, that  though  it  might  yield  to  the  royal  prerogatives  of 
Constantinople,  and  perhaps  to  the  trade  of  Alexandria,  or 
the  splendour  of  Antioch,  it  still  maintained  the  second  rank 
in  the  West,  as  the  Rome  of  the  African  world.  "  That 
wealthy  and  powerful  metropolis  displayed,  in  a  dependant 
condition,  the  image  of  a  flourishing  republic.  Carthage 
contained  the  manufactures,  the  arms,  and  the  treasuries  of 
the  six  provinces  A  regular' subordination  of  civil  honours 
gradually  ascended,  from  the  procurators  of  the  streets  and 
quarters  of  the  city  to  the  tribunal  of  the  supreme  magistrate  ; 
who,  with  the  title  of  proconsul,  represented  the  state  and  dig- 
nity of  a  consul  of  ancient  Rome.  Schools  and  gymnasia  were 
instituted  for  the  education  of  the  African  youth  ;  and  the  lib- 
eral arts  and  manners,  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  philosophy,  were 
publicly  taught  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages.  The 
buiklings  of  Carthage  were  uniform  and  magoificent.  A 


♦  Account  of  Tunis,  p.  71. 


220         TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES, 


shady  grove  was  planted  in  the  midst  of  the  capital ;  the  nete 
port,  a  secure  and  capacious  harbour,  was  subservient  to  the 
commercial  industry  of  citizens  and  strangers ;  and  the 
splendid  games  of  the  circus  and  the  theatre  were  exhibited 
almost  in  the  presence  of  the  barbarians."*  The  reputation 
of  the  Carthaginians  was  not  equal  to  that  of  their  coyntry, 
and  the  reproach  of  Punic  faith  still  adhered  to  their  incon- 
stant and  subtle  character. 

We  have  elsewhere  alluded  to  the  ravages  of  the  Vandals 
in  the  fifth  century,  and  the  overthrow  inflicted'hy  the  Sara- 
cens in  the  seventh,  under  their  enthusiastic  leaders.  But 
it  should  seem,  that  in  neither  of  these  cases  was  the  de- 
struction entire  ;  for,  in  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century, 
considerable  remains  still  existed  of  its  beauty  and  strength. 
Edrisi,  however,  describes  its  appearance  in  the  twelfth  age 
as  nothing  more  than  a  scene  of  splendid  ruins.  "There 
are,"  says  he,  "  still  to  be  seen  remarkable  vestiges  of  Ro- 
man buildings;  for  instance,  the  theatre,  wl  -ch  has  not  its 
(equal  in  the  world.  This  edifice  is  of  a  circular  form,  and  is 
composed  of  about  fifty  arches,  yet  remaining.  Each  of 
these  arches  embraces  a  space  of  about  twenty-three  feet. 
Between  every  two  arches  is  a  pillar  of  equal  magnitude,  the 
two  pilasters  of  which  are  about  three  feet  four  inches  in 
breadth.  Above  each  of  them  rise  five  rows  of  arches,  one 
over  the  other,  of  similar  form  and  dimensions,  constructed  of 
stone  of  incomparable  fineness.  On  the  top  of  each  arch 
was  a  frieze,  on  which  are  seen  divers  figures  and  curious 
representations  of  men,  animals,  and  ships,  sculptured  with 
exquisite  art.  In  general,  it  may  be  said,  that  the  other 
ruins,  and  the  finest  edifices  of  this  description,  are  nothing 
in  comparison  with  the  one  now  delineated^" 

He  next  proceeds  to  mention  the  cisterns  and  aqueduct, 
the  latter  of  which,  he  remarks,  "  extended  along  an  infinite 
number  of  bridges,  where  the  water  flowed  in  an  equal  and 
regular  manner.  These  bridges  are  composed  of  arches, 
which  are  low  or  of  moderate  height  in  the  plain,  but  of 
great  elevation  in  the  valleys  and  hollows.  In  the  present 
day  it  is  quite  dry,  having  ceased  to  flow,  in  consequence  of 
the  depopulation  of  Carthage,  and  because,  from  the  time  of 
the  fall  of  the  city  till  now,  there  has  been  constant  excava- 


*  I>ecline,  &c.,  chap,  xxxiii. 


TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES. 


221 


tion  among  its  ruins,  and  even  under  the  foundationa  of  its 
ancient  edifices.  Marbles  have  been  discovered  there  of  so 
many  different  species,  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  de- 
scribe them.  An  eyewitness  reports,  that  he  saw  taken  out 
blocks  thirty  feet  high,  and  sixty-three  inches  in  diameter. 
Nor  have  these  spoliations  been  yet  discontinued.  The 
marbles  are  transported  far  away  to  all  countries ;  and  no- 
body leaves  Carthage  without  carrying  off  considerable  quan- 
tities, either  by  vesseis  or  by  other  means  :  it  is  a  notorious 
fact.  Sometimes  marble  columns  have  been  found  thirty  feet 
in  circumference."* 

The  circumstances  now  detailed  by  the  Arabian  geogra- 
pher will  account,  in  some  measure,  for  the  absence  of  such 
splendid  relics  and  gorgeous  ornament,  as  might  be  expected 
amid  the  ruins  of  the  Carthaginian  capital.  The  destructive 
agency  of  time,  and  the  hands  of  the  ignorant  or  the  covetous, 
have  produced  the  poverty  of  which  Dr.  Shaw  complains,  and 
which  every  succeeding  year  must  be  found  to  increase.  In 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  accordingly,  the  sec- 
ond metropolis  of  the"  "West  was  represented  by  a  mosque,  a 
college  without  students,  twenty  or  thirty  shops,  and  the  huts 
of  500  peasants, .who,  in  their  abject  poverty,  displayed  the 
arrogance  of  the  Punic  senators.  Even  that  paltry  village 
was  swept  away  by  the  Spaniards  whom  Charles  V.  had  sta- 
tioned in  the  fortress  of  the  Goletta.  At  this  epoch  we 
therefore  may  say  that  even  the  ruins  of  Carthage  have 
perished.  + 

Chateaubriand  relates,  that  whon  he  cast  anchor  opposite 
the  debris  of  this  ancient  city,  he  looked  at  them,  but  was 
unable  to  distinguish  what  they  could  be.  He  perceived  a 
few  Moorish  huts,  a  Mohammedan  hermitage  at  the  point  of 
a  projecting  cape,  sheep  browsing  among  ruins — "  ruins,  so 
far  from  being  striking,  that  I  could  scarcely  distinguish 
them  from  the  ground  on  which  they  lay."t 

The  large  space  devoted  to  the  capital,  and  to  the  interest- 
ing remains  in  its  neighbourhood,  compels  us  to  restric 

*  This  passage,  translated  from  the  original  Arabic  by  M, 
Amedee  Jaubert,  was  inserted  in  the  Jour.  Asiatique  for  May 
1828.— See  Modern  Tra-veller,  vol.  i.,  p.  237. 

f  Decline  and  Fall,  &c.,-chap.  lii. 

t  Travels,  vol.  ii.,  p.  286. 

T3 


222 


TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES. 


within  narrower  bounds  our  description  of  the  other  cities. 
It  may  be  observed  in  the  outset,  that  this  kingdom  is  not 
divided  into  provinces  and  governed  by  viceroys  hke  that  of 
Algiers,  but  the  whole  is  under  the  immediate  inspection  of 
the  bey  himself,  who  collects  the  tribute  in  person.  For 
this  purpose  he  visits,  with  a  flying  camp,  once  every  year, 
the  principal  parts  of  it — traversing  in  the  summer  season 
the  fertile  country  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Keff  and  Beja, 
and  in  the  winter  the  several  districts  between  Kairwan  and 
thfe  Jerid.  These  two  circuits  very  nearly  correspond  with 
the  Zeugitania  and  the  Byzacium  of  the  ancients  ;  the  for- 
mer, or  summer-circuit,  comprehends  all  the  land  that  lies 
to  the  northward  of  the  Gulf  of  Hammamet,  while  the  latter, 
or  winter-circuit,  embraces  the  section  which  extends  south- 
ward from  the  same  parallel. 

Beginning  with  the  western  part  of  Zeugitania,  our  atten- 
tion is  drawn  to  a  magnificent  cape,  supposed  to  be  the  spot 
where  Scipio  landed  in  his  first  African  expedition.  A  few 
miles  to  the  southward  is  the  town  of  Bizerta,  pleasantly  situ- 
ated on  a  canal  between  an  extensive  lake  and  the  sea.  It 
is  about  a  mile  in  circumference,  and  defended  by  several 
fortresses  ;  but  its  chief  importance,  in  a  geographical  point 
of  view,  arises  from  the  supposition  that  it  is  the  Hippo  Zari- 
tus  of  ancient  authors. 

The  site  of  Utica,  so  famous  for  t\ie  opposition  made  by  its 
inhabitants  to  the  cause  of  Caesar,  and  for  the  death  of  the 
republican  Cato,  can  no  longer  be  determined.  The  Bagra- 
da,  the  river  on  which  it  stood,  having  changed  its  course, 
and  large  accessions  being  made  to  the  land  by  depositions 
from  its  current,  it  is  now  a  matter  of  conjecture  where  the 
ruins  of  a  city  so  intimately  connected  with  the  history  of  Af- 
rica are  to  be  sought. 

Proceeding  eastward  from  Tuniis,  the  traveller,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  six  miles,  reaches  the  town  of  Rhades,  celebrated  as 
the  place  where  Regulus  defeated  the  Carthaginians.  Aoout 
a  league  farther  on,  in  the  same  direction,  is  Hammam  Leif, 
nanied  from  the  hot-baths  with  which  it  abounds.  Near  this 
position  is  the  village  of  Solyman,  inhabited  by  Andalusian 
Moors,  who,  being  more  civilized  than  their  African  brethren, 
are  very  courteous  to  Christians  :  they  still  retain  the  Spanish 
language.    Passing  Moraisah  and  Sidi  Doud,  we  come  to 


TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES.  223 


Lowharcah,  the  Aquilaria  of  Pliny,  where  Curio  landed  those 
troops  which  were  afterward  cut  in  pieces  by  Sabura.  It 
presents  various  fragments  of  architecture,  but  none  worthy 
of  particular  notice.  In  this  vicinity  Cape  Bon  rears  its  prom- 
iient  ridge,  from  which,  it  is  said,  the  mountains  of  Sicily 
•may  be  seen  in  clear  weather.  Fifteen  miles  from  this  cape 
is  Clybea,  the  Kalibia  of  the  Latins,  which  is  now  represented 
by  a  miserable  knot  of  hovels.  Ghurba,  in  former  times  Co- 
rubis,  is  seven  leagues  distant  from  the  village  just  described. 
It  was  once  a  considerable  place  ;  though,  at  present,  the 
ruins  of  a  large  aqueduct,  with  the  cisterns  that  received  the 
water,  are  the  only  antiquities.  Nabal,  which  next  succeeds, 
holds  the  place  of  Neapolis,  the  wrecks  of  which  prove  it  to 
have  been  a  considerable  city,  even  exclusive  of  that  part  of 
it  long  ago  swallowed  up  by  the  sea.  From  this  point,  a 
journey  of  two  leagues  brings  the  visiter  to  Hammamet,  or 
the  Dwelling  of  Wild  Pigeons,  which  Leo  Africanus  informs 
us  was  built  about  his  own  time.  The  pillars,  blocks  of 
marble,  and  inscriptions,  with  some  few  other  tokens  of  an- 
tiquity, are  understood  to  have  been  brought  from  the  neigh- 
bouring ruins  of  Cassir  Aseite,  the  Civitas  Siagitana  of  clas- 
sical authors.  In  a  contiguous  plain  is  a  building  called  the 
Manarah,  a  large  mausoleum,  nearly  twenty  yards  in  diame- 
ter, of  a  cylindrical  form,  with  a  vault  underneath  it.  Several 
small  altars— conjectured  by  the  Moors  to  have  been  so 
many  manara,  or  lamps  displayed  for  the  direction  of  marin- 
ers— are  placed  upon  the  cornice.  This  position  marks  the 
boundary,  on  the  seacoast,  between  the  summer  and  winter 
circuits.* 

The  towns  in  the  interior  of  the  same  division  are  not  un- 
worthy of  notice.  Returning  to  the  western  border,  we  meet 
with  Beja  or  Bay-Jah,  supposed  to  be  the  Vacca  of  Sallust, 
and  the  Oppidum  Vagense  of  Pliny.  It  is  still  a  place  of 
considerable  trade — the  chief  mart,  indeed,  of  the  whole 
kingdom,  particularly  for  corn,  Vy  the  price  of  which  all  com- 
modities are  estimated.  In  the  plain  of  Busdera,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Mejerdah,  a  public  fair  is  held  every  summer, 

*  ShaAv,  vol.  i.,  p.  181.  The  altars  bear  the  following  in- 
scription :— 

L.  ^MILIO  AfRICANO  AVDNCULO" 
G.  SUELLIO  PONTARO  PaTRUEU 

ViTKLLio  Quarto  Patri. 


224         TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES. 


which  is  frequented  by  the  most  distant  Arabian  tribes,  who 
resort  thither  with  their  flocks,  their  manufactures,  and  their 
families.  Near  the  river  just  mentioned  is  Tuburbo,  a  village 
inhabited  by  Spanish  Moors.  In  this  neighbourhood,  a  late 
bey  planted  a  great  variety  of  fruit-trees,  which  were  ranged 
in  so  particular  a  manner  that  each  species  was  confined  to 
one  grove,  and  thereby  removed  from  the  influence  of  every 
other.  Thus,  the  orange-trees  were  all  placed  by  themselves, 
without  the  admission  of  the  lime  or  the  citron  ;  and  where 
the  pear  or  the  apple  was  gathered,  there  was  no  encourage- 
ment to  look  for  the  peach  or  apricot.  The  traveller  next 
arrives  at  Tuckaaber  and  Tubersoke,  which  present  nothing 
remarkable  beyond  a  few  inscriptions  that  have  now  become 
nearly  unintelligible.  Passing  the  latter  of  these  "hamlets  we 
come  to  Lorbus  ;  and  at  an  equal  distance  from  both  is  the 
ancient  Musti,  now  called  Abdel  Abbus,  where  are  the  re- 
mains of  a  beautiful  triumphal  arch.  Upon  a  stone  which 
may  have  formerly  belonged  to  it,  is  the  following  dedi- 
cation : — 

Invictissimo  Felicissimoque  Imperatori 
AupusTO  C^SARi  Orbis  Pacatori 

.     .     .     MUSTICENSIUM  D.  D. 

Keff,  known  as  the  Sicca  Veneria  of  Roman  authors,  sit- 
uated about  seventy  miles  from  Tunis,  is  esteemed,  in  point 
of  riches  and  strength,  the  third  town  in  the  kingdom.  Du- 
ring the  civil  war  already  recorded,  the  greatest  part  of  the 
citadel  was  blowm  up  ;  but  it  has  been  rebuilt  on  an  improved 
plan,  which  contributes  at  once  to  its  beauty  and  eflficiency. 
In  levelling  an  adjacent  mount,  to  find  materials  for' this  for- 
tress, the  workmen  brought  to  light  an  entire  statue  of  Venus, 
which,  however,  was  no  sooner  seen  than"  it  was  broken  to 
pieces  by  these  barbarians.  This  discovery  is  "regarded  as  at 
once  authorizing  and  illustrating  the  epithet  of  Veneria,  by 
which  the  town  is  distinguished.  There  was  also  dug  up,  at 
the  same  time,  an  equestrian  statue,  dedicated  to  Marcus 
Antoninus  Rufus,  which  suffered  the  fate  of  the  other.  Keflf, 
as  the  name  imports,  stands  upon  the  declivity  of  a  hill,  with 
a  plentiful  spring  of  water  near  the  centre  of  it.  The  follow-' 
ing  inscription  can  still  be  read  on  a  public  building : — 


TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES.  225 


VlCTORI 

conturioni  . 
Legionario 
Ex  Equite 

Romano 
Ob  Mumfi 
Centiam  Ord9 

SlCCENSIUM 

.   .  .  Civi 
Et  Condecurioni 
D.  D.  P.  P. 

Tubersoke,  about  seven  leagues  south  from  Tunis,  is  built 
in  the  form  of  a  crescent  between  two  ridges  of  a  very  verdant 
mountain,  and  presents,  as  the  sole  remains  of  antiquity,  a 
large  pair  of  stag's  horns,  well  delineated  ih  low-relief,  on  the 
gate  of  an  extensive  edifice.  To  Zowan,  the  only  other 
town  in  this  direction,  we  have  already  alluded,  as  one  of  the 
sources  whence  water  was  supplied  to  Carthage.  At  the 
present  day  its  reputation  is  confined  to  the  dying  of  scarlet 
caps  -and  the  bleaching  of  linen,  great  quantities  of  both  being 
daily  brought  thither  from  Tunis  and  Susa.* 

In  Byzacium,  or  the  winter-circuit,  there  are  still  towns 
which,  either  from  their  ancient  importance,  oj  the  conspicu- 
ous place  they  hold  in  modern  maps,  are  worthy  of  a  brief 
notice.  Herkla,  the  Heraclea  of  the  Lower  Empire,  the  Jus- 
tiniana  of  the  middle  ages,  ajid  the  Adrumetum  of  remoter 
antiquity,  stands  on  the  Gulf  of  Hammamet.  Susa,  a  few 
miles  farther  to  the  southeast,  possesses  some  notoriety  as 
a  market  for  oil  and  fine  linen,  and  may  be  reckoned  one  of 
the  most  considerable  cities  of  which  the  Tunisians  can  boast. 
Its  architectural  remains,  though  not  splendid,  prove  that  it 
must  have  been  a  place  of  distinction,  even  as  early  as  the 
days  of  Caesar.  Passing  Sahaleel  and  Monasteer,  we  arrive 
at  Lempta,  the  Leptis  Parva  of  Hirtius  and  Lucah  ;  of  which, 
however,  nothing  now  is  seen  except  the  ruins  of  a  castle 
and  some  traces  of  its  cothon  or  harbour.  Agar  and  Demass, 
mentioned  by  the  aVinalist  of  Caesar's  campaigns,  still  retain 
sufficient  indications  of  strength  to  explain  the  value  which 
was  attached  to  their  occupation  by  that  master  in  the  art  of 
war.  Mahedia  is  situated  upon  a  peninsula  five  miles  to  the 
soutk  of  the  latter  of  these  towns,  and  appears  to  have  been 


*  Sha#,  vol.  i.,  p.  19i. 


226  TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES. 


a  place  of  great  consequence.  Leo  Africanus  says  it  waa 
built  by  Mahdi,  the  first  patriarch  of  Kairwan,  and  therefore 
assumed  his  name  ;  but  Dr.  Shaw  remarks,  there  is  some- 
thing too  regular  in  several  of  the  remaining  capitals,  entab- 
latures, and  other  pieces  of  the  ancient  masonry,  even  de- 
faced as  they  now  appear,  to  warrant  the-  opinion  that  the 
founder  of  them  was  an  Arab.* 

At  Sallecto,  the  Sublecte  of  the  middle  ages,  are  the  ruins 
of  a  castle  little  inferior  in  extent  to  the  Tower  of  London, 
erected  apparently  for  the  protection  of  p  small  port  which 
lies  below  it.  Elalia,  besides  the  ordinary  remains  of  old 
towns,  displays  those  of  several  cisterns,  with  large  paved 
areas  built  over  them,  meant  to  receive  the  rain-water  by 
which  thev  ware  periodically  replenished.  These,  and  sim- 
ilar structures'  in  this  part  of  the  countj'y,  are  ascribed  to 
the  Sultan  Ben-Aglib,  a  prince  who,  for  his  public  spirit  and 
warlike  exploits,  is  justly  held  in  the  greatest  veneration. 
Advancing  along  the  shore,  we  observe  Sbea,  Ca-poudia, 
and  the  two  islapds  of  Karkenna,  the  Cerrina  and  the  Corini- 
tis  of  the  old  geographers.  Here  it  is  usual  to  fix  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Lesser  Syrtis  ;  from  which  point  to  the 
Island  of  Je^ba,  there  is  a  succession  of  flat  islets  and  sand- 
banks, whence  the  inhabitants  derive  much  advantage  in  their 
simple  f.BUKries.  Sfax  or  Sfakus,  a  thriving  village,  carries 
us  on  to  Thainee  and  Maharess,  at  the  latter  of  which  sta- 
tions are  the  relics  of  a  fortress.  Then  follow  on  the  line  of 
the  coast  Ellamait,  Suli  Midthil,  and  Woodlif.  Three  leagues 
from  this  last  is  Cabes,  the  Epichus  of  Scylax  and  the  Ta- 
cape  of  other  ancient  geographers,  where  Dr.  Shaw  was  struck 
with  the  appearance  of  a  heap  of  ruins,  among  which  wer^ 
some  beautiful  granite  pillars.  They  were  all  of  them  square,, 
and  twelve  feet  long  ;  and,  on  the  whole,^  were  such  as  he  , 
had  not  seen  in  any  other  part  of  Africa;  A  walk  of  three 
miles  conducts  the  stranger  to  the  little  village  of  Tobulba, 
whence,  in  a  clear  atmosphere,  may  be  descried  the  Island 
of  Jerba,  the  southern  boundary  of  the  Tunisian  state.i 

In  regard  to  some  of  the  towns  now  mentioned,  M.  Bla- 

*  El  Mahdia  oppidum  nostris  ferfe  temporibus  a  Mahdi  primo 
Cairoan  pontifice  conditum.  Descriptio  Africae,  p.  573.  Shaw, 
vol.  i.,  p.  208. 

t  Travels  in  Barbar/.'yol  i.,  p.  216, 


TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES.  227 


quiere  supplies  a  few  notices  worthy  of  being  inserted.  He 
tells  us,  for  example,  that  the  population  of  Susa  amounts  to 
8,000  or  10,000  ;  that  the  country  around  is  extremely  beau- 
tiful and  well  cultivated  ;  and  that  thirty  miles  in  the  interior 
there  is  a  colossal  amphitheat|-e  in  a  high  state  of  preserva- 
tion. Gabes,  or,  as  he  writes  it,  Cabes,  contains  at  least 
30,000  souls,  and  the  mountains  in  its  vicinity  are  famous 
for  the  warlike  disposition  of  the  inhabitants.  It  is  said  that 
the  sheik  of  this  province  can  bring  into  the  field  20,000 
cavalry  ;  horses  being  very  numerous  and  of  a  superior  qual- 
ity. Of  the  Island  of  Jerba,  the  Meninx  of  Pliny,  he  remarks, 
that  it  is  only  separated  from  the  continent  by  a  narrow  chan- 
nel, not  navigable.  The  natives,  exceeding  30,000  in  num- 
ber, are  considered  by  far  the  most  industrious  and  well- 
disposed  under  his  highness'  government.  Their  manufac- 
tures of  shawls,  linen,  and  woollen  cloths,  have  prospered  ur>- 
commonly,  and  are  generally  esteemed  the  best  in  all  Barbary.* 
In  the  inland  parts  of  Byzacium,  too,  are  some  important 
places,  of  which  we  shall  shortly  men'tion  the  principal.  At 
Kairwan,  the  ancient  Cairoan,.  are  several  fragments  of  archi- 
tecture ;  and  the  mosque,  which  is  accounted  the  most  mag- 
nificent in  Northern  Africa,  is  said  to  be  supported  by  an 
almost  incredible  number  of  granite  pillars — not  fewer  than 
600.  But  no  inscripti  jns  of  any  value  were  discovered  ;  and, 
considering  the  comparatively  njodern  origin  of  the  place,  in 
connexion  with  the  character  of  its  founders,  such  literary 
indications  were  not  to  be  expected.  Jemme,  called  Tisdra 
in  the  time  of  Julius  Cc?sar,  is  distinguished  by  the  beautiful 
remains  of  a  spacious  a.aphitheatre,  to  which  allusion  has 
been  already  made,  consisting  originally  of  sixty-four  rows 
of  arches,  and  four  rows  of  columns  placed  one  abo\5  another. 
The  highest  series,  which  was  probably  an  attic  structure,  is 
niuch  dilapidated ;  and  Mohammed  Bey,  who,  during  the 
civil  dissensions,  used  it  as  a  fortress,  blew  up  four  of  its 
arches  from  top  to  bottom.  Viewed  from  the  outside,  noth- 
ing could  appear  more  entire  or  magnificent.  As  the  elder 
Gordian  was  proclaimed  emperor  in  this  city,  it  is  not  im- 
probable, that  in  gratitude  to  the  place  where  he  received  the 
purplev  he  laid  the  foundation  and  defrayed  the  expense  of  the 
building. 


*  Letters  from  the  Mediterranean,  vol.  ii.,  p.  182 


228         TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES. 


But  Sfaitla,  formerly  Sufetula,  is  the  most  remarkable 
town  in  Barbary  for  the  extent  and  magnificence  of  its  ruins. 
First,  there  is  a  splendid  triumphal  gateway  of  the  Corinthian 
order,  consisting  of  one  large  arch,  with  a  smaller  one  on 
each  side  of  it,  having  these  few  words  of  dedication  remain- 
ing on  the  architrave  : — 

Imp.  C^sar  Aug  

Onin  

SrFFETULENTIUM  .... 

Hang  edificaverunt 

Et  dd.  p.  p. 

At  the  end  of  a  regular  pavement,  the  visiter  passes  through 
a  beautiful  portico,  built  in  the  same  style  and  manner  as  the 
triumphal  arch,  which  conducts  into  a  spacious  court.  Here 
are  the  ruins  of  three  contiguous  temples,  of  which  the  sev- 
eral roofs,  porticoes,  and  faqades,  are  indeed  broken  dowp ; 
but  the  rest  of  the  fabric,  with  its  respective  columns,  pedi- 
ments, and  entablatures,  remains  perfectly  entire. 

Gilma,  which  has  the  area  of  a  temple  still  remaining,  is 
supposed  to  have  been  a  great  city.  It  stood  six  leagues  to 
the  eastward  of  Sufetula,  and  was  known  among  Roman 
authors  by  the  name  of  Oppidum  Chilmanense.  The  town 
of  Casareene,  the  Colonia  SciUitana  of  former  days,  claims 
some  attention  for  a  triumphal  arch,  though  it  be  more  re- 
markable for  the  quantity  and  value  of  the  materials  than  for 
the  beauty  or  elegance  of  the  design.  On  the  top  there  is 
an  attic  structure,  having  certain  Corinthian-like  ornaments 
bestowed  upon  the  entablature,  while  the  pilasters  themselves 
are  entirely  Gothic.  At  the  interval  of  seven  leagues,  the 
traveller,  proceeding  towards  the  south  and.  west,  discovers 
the  vestiges  of  Feriana,  which  is  conjectured  to  be  the  Thala 
repeatedly  mentioned  by  Sallust.  Its  boasted  grandeur  is 
now  reduced  to  a  few  granite  pillars,  which,  by  some  extraor- 
dinary chance,  or  unwonted  forbearance  of  the  Arabs,  have 
been  allowed  to  stand  on  their  pedestals.  Advancing  in  the 
same  direction,  the  eye  will  detect  in  succession  Gaflfsa,  an- 
other of  the  strong  cities  of  Jugurtha,  and  Gorbata,  which 
marks  the  edge  of  the  Jerid,  or  dry  country,  belonging  to  the 
domains  of  the  ancient  Getalia. 


TUNIS  AND  ITS  DEPENDANCES.  229 


In  this  neighbourhood  there  is  a  salt-water  marsh,  sixty 
miles  long  and  about  eighteen  broad,  usually  denominated 
the  "  Lake  of  Marks,"  or  Lowdeah,  owing  to  a  number  of 
stakes  placed  at  proper  distances,  to  direct  the  caravans  in 
their  march  over  it.  Without  such  assistance,  says  Dr. 
Shaw^,  travelling  here  would  be  both  dangerous  and  difficult, 
as  well  from  the  variety  of  pits  and  quicksands  that  could 
not  otherwise  be  avoided,  as  because  the  opposite  shore  has 
no  other  tokens  to  be  known  by,  except  some  date-trees, 
which  are  not  seen  above  sixteen  miles  at  the  most.  Scat- 
tered over  this  desolate  tract  are  numerous  villages,  the 
names  of  which  have  scarcely  ever  reached  a  European  ear, 
and  which  are  occupied  by  a  class  of  Bedouins  who  divide 
their  cares  between  their  scanty  flocks  and  the  avocations 
of  plunder,  mutual  hostility,  and  assassination.  We  travel, 
to  use  the  words  of  the  amusing  author  just  quoted,  '*  nearly 
thirty  miles  through  a  lonesome  uncomfortable  desert,  the 
resort  of  cut-throats  and  robbers,  where  we  saw  the  recent 
blood  of  a  Turkish  gentleman,  who,  with  three  of  his  ser- 
vants, had  been  murdered  two  days  before  by  these  miscre- 
ants. Here  we  were  likewise  ready  to  be  attacked  by  five 
of  the  Harammees,  who  were  mounted  upon  black  horses, 
and  clothed,  to  be  the  less  discerned,  with  cloaks  of  the  same 
colour.  But,  finding  us  prepared  to  receive  them,  they  came 
up  peaceably  to  us  and  gave  us  the  salam.  Through  all  this 
dreary  space,  we  meet  with  neither  herbage  nor  water  till  we 
arrive  within  a  few  miles  of  Elhamma."* 

We  shall  not  attempt  to  delineate  the  various  gradations 
of  barbarism  which  distinguish  these  sons  of  the  Desert,  nor 
to  define  the  limits  of  name  and  territory  whereby  the  several 
tribes  identify  their  members  as  descendants  of  the  same 
patriarch.  The  Welled  Seide  and  the  Welled  Mathie  are 
m  our  eyes  neither  more  nor  less  noble  than  the  Beni  Ya- 
goube,  who  enjoy  the  fertile  lands  of  Keff,  or  than  the  sons 
of  Sidi  Boogannin.  who  pitch  their  tents  near  the  mountains 
of  Hydrah  and  EUonleijah.  These  nomades  may  acknowl- 
edge the  sovereignty  of  Tunis,  and  allow  themselves  to  be 
included  in  the  winter-circuit ;  but  it  seems  not  probable  that 
the  bey,  even  with  his  flying  camp,  will  deem  it  prudent  to 
exact  the  yearly  tribute,  or  to  make  an  annual  muster  of  the 


*  Travels  in  Barbary,  vol  i.,  p.  238. 


230  THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS. 


savage  horsemen.  Such  neighbours,  however  remote,  will 
for  a  long  time  prove  the  greatest  bar  to  the  introduction  of 
European  colonies,  arts,  and  manners. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

The  Regency  of  Algiers. 

Origin  of  the  term  Algiers — Importance  attached  to  its  History 
— Boundaries  of  the  State — Appearance  of  the  Town — Its 
Interior — Population — Fortifications — Narrow  Streets — His- 
tory resumed — Charles  V.  resolves  to  attack  Algiers — His 
Force — Preparations  of  Hassan  Aga — Storm  disables  the 
Spaniards — Loss  of  Ships  and  Men — Sufferings  of  the  Army 
— Scattered  at  Sea — Fortitude  of  the  Emperor — These  Hos- 
tilities had  an  earlier  origin — Policy  of  Cardinal  Ximenes — 
Success  of  his  Measures — Moors  revolt,  and  invite  Barbaros- 
sa — Spaniards  deprived  of  Oran — Expedition  of  Philip  V. — 
Oran  destroyed  by  an  Earthquake — French  attack  Algiers 
under  Beaulieu — And  under  Duquesne — The  City  and  Batte- 
ries destroyed — The  Dutch,  Danes,  Swedes,  Austrians,  and 
Russians,  adopt  different  Measures — English  make  several 
efforts  to  reduce  the  Corsairs — Insults  during  the  reign  of 
George  II. — Resolutions  by  Congress  of  Vienna — Expedition 
of  Lord  Exmouth — Attack  on  Algiers — Terms  acceded  to — 
Captives  released— French  Government  offended — Expedi- 
tion under  Bourmont — Account  by  Rozet — Present  state  of 
Algiers — Revenue — War  between  Algiers  and  Tunis — Bona 
— Tabarca— La  Cala  —  Constantina — Antiquities  —  Mileu — 
Remains — Bujeya — Pro\dnce  of  Titteri — Bleeda  and  Medea 
— Burgh  Hamza — Auzea — Beni  Mezzab — Province  of  Tlem- 
san — Capital — Arbaal — El  Herba — MaUana — Aquae  Cahdae 
Colonia — Oran — Recent  Histoiy — Inhabitants — Geeza—  Ca- 
rastel — Mostagan — Jol,  or  Julia  Caesarea — Tefessad — Sher- 
shell— -Vicinity  of  Algiers — French  Government — Attempt  at 
Colonization — Difficulties — Favourable  Chmate  and  Soil — 
European  Powers  invited  to  co-operate — Late  Pubhcations 
on  the  Subject. 

The  term  Algiers  literally  signifies  "  the  island,"  and  was 
derived  from  the  original  construction  of  its  harbour,  one  side 
of  which  was  separated  from  the  land.  A  variety  of  circum- 
stances have  contributed  to  bestow  great  celebrity  on  this 


THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS.  231 


apital,  some  of  which  reflect  as  little  honour  on  the  policy 
of  European  states  as  on  the  character  of  its  own  rulers  and 
the  pursuits  of  its  inhabitants.  The  extent  of  territory  at- 
tached to  its  government,  or  claimed  by  its  chiefs,  possesses 
very  small  importance  in  the  estimation  of  our  pohticians, 
who  for  centuries  have  been  wont  to  confine  their  attention 
to  the  harbours  only  of  that  barbarian  power,  whose  cruisers 
inflicted  upon  the  trade  of  Christendom  more  damage  than 
could  have  arisen  from  a  protracted  war  between  the  greatest 
of  her  maritime  nations.  Late  events,  and  more  especially 
the  recent  conquest  achieved  by  the  arras  of  France,  have 
added  immensely  to  the  interest  with  which  the  history  of 
this  most  warlike  of  the  Barbary  States  has  ever  been  re- 
garded on  the  northern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean ;  mark- 
ing, it  is  to  be  hoped,  a  new  era  in  the  affairs  of  those  Moor- 
ish oligarchies  by  whom  the  miserable  natives  have  been  long 
oppressed,  and  the  civilization  of  the  most  refiined  portion  of 
the  world  put  to  the  blush. 

Following  the  best  authorities,  we  may  observe,  that  the 
kingdom  of  Algiers  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  river  Zaine, 
which  divides  it  from  Tunis  ;  on  the  west  by  the  Mountains 
of  Trara  ;  on  the  south  by  the  Sahara,  or  Great  Desert ;  and 
on  the  north  by  the  Mediterranean.  The  length  is  computed 
at  480  miles,  though  Sanson,  who  probably  followed  the  line 
of  the  coast,  makes  it  not  less  than  900 — an  estimate  which 
exceeds  the  truth  more  than  100  leagues.  The  breadth  va- 
ries considerably  at  different  places,  the  narrowest  section, 
from  the  sea  to  the  Atlas  range,  being  about  forty,  while  the 
broadest  amounts  to  150  miles.  Pananti,  one  of  the  latest 
writers  on  the  subject,  assigns  to  it  above  600  miles  from 
west  to  east,  and  180  from  the  northern  shore  to  the  Coun- 
try of  Dates,  or  Blaid  el  Jerid.  The  regency  is  divided  into 
four  provinces — Algiers,  Constantina,  Titteri,  and  Mascara, 
or  Tlemsan  ;  the  first  being  governed  by  the  dey  in  person, 
while  the  others  are  committed  to  the  administration  of  cer- 
tain beys,  his  heutenants. 

The  territory  of  Algiers,  with  the  exception  of  the  parts 
bordering  on  the  Desert,  is  less  sandy  and  more  fertile  than 
that  of  Tunis.  Desfontaines  remarks,  in  his  Flora  Atlantica, 
that  he  found  the  climate  more  temperate,  the  mountains 
higher  and  more  numerous,  the  rains  more  abundant,  the 
-'^'■iners  and  streams  more  frequent,  the  vegetation  more 


232 


THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS. 


active  and  diversified.  This  improvement  in  point  of  atmo- 
spherical properties,  and  the  fruitfulness  which  usually  attends 
them,  may  be  ascribed  to  the  great  elevation  of  the  ridge  that 
intersects  this  part  of  the  African  continent ;  the  summits  of 
which,  frequently  covered  with  snow,  arrest  the  progress  of 
the  clouds  and  condense  them  into  rain. 

The  city,  which  gives  its  name  to  the  whole  kingdom,  rises 
in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre  at  the  extremity  of  a  fortified 
anchoring-ground.  The  tops  of  the  houses,  says  Joseph 
Pitts,  in  his  simple  manner,  "  are  all  over  white,  being  flat, 
and  covered  with  lime  and  sand,  as  floors.  The  upper  part 
of  the  town  is  not  so  broad  as  the  lower  part,  and,  therefore, 
at  sea  it  looks  just  like  the  topsail  of  a  ship.  It  is  a  very 
strong  place,  and  well  fortified  with  castles  and  guns.  There 
are  seven  castles  without  the  walls,  and  two  tiers  of  guns  in 
most  of  them.  But  in  the  greatest  castle,  which  is  on  the 
mole  without  the  gate,  there  are  three  tiers  of  guns,  many 
of  them  of  an  extraordinary  length,  carrying  fifty,  sixty,  yea 
eighty  pound  shot.  Besides  all  these  castles,  there  is  at  the 
higher  end  of  the  town,  within  the  walls,  another  castle  with 
many  guns.  And,  moreover,  on  many  places  towards  the 
sea  are  great  guns  planted.  Algiers  is  well  walled,  and  sur- 
rounded with  a  great  trench.  It  hath  five  gates,  and  some 
of  these  have  two,  some  three,  other  gates  within  them,  and 
some  of  them  plated  all  over  with  thick  iron.  So  that  it  is 
made  strong  and  convenient  for  being  what  it  is — a  nest  of 
pirates."* 

The  annexed  view  is  taken  from  the  seashore,  a  little  to 
the  south  of  the  city,  and  represents  the  wall  which  encom- 
passes the  town,  together  with  the  port,  the  mole,  and  cer- 
tain marine  defences. 

Perhaps  the  appearance  of  this  singular  place,  when  viewed 
from  the  sea,  is  still  more  striking.  The  white  buildings 
rising  in  successive  terraces  have  an  imposing  effect  ;  while 
the  numerous  country-mansions  scattered  over  a  circle  of 
hills,  amid  groves  of  olive,  citron,  and  banana-trees,  present  a 
peaceful  and  rural  landscape  very  opposite  in  its  character  to 
that  of  a  nation  of  pirates.  But  on  entering  the  city  the 
charm  entirely  dissolves.    The  streets  are  so  extremely  nar- 

*  A  True  and  Faithful  Account  of  the  Religion  and  Manners 
of  the  Mohammedans,  pp.  7,  8. 


THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS.  235 


row  that  in  seme  of  them  three  persons  can  scarcely  walk 
abreast.  This  strange  style  of  building  is  adopted  on  ac- 
count of  its  affording  a  better  shade  from  the  rays  of  the  sun, 
and  more  protection  in  case  of  earthquakes,  by  one  of  which 
Algiers  suffered  severely  in  1717.  The  pathway  being  con- 
cave, and  rising  on  each  side,  the  greatest  inconvenience  re- 
sults both  to  men  and  animals  in  passing  through  the  town  ; 
and,  accordingly,  when  you  meet  a  person  on  horseback,  you 
are  obliged  to  stand  close  by  the  houses  to  escape  from  being 
trampled  under  foot. 

There  are  nine  great  mosques  and  fifty  smaller  ones  within 
the  walls ;  three  principal  schools,  and  several  bazaars.  Its 
finest  pubhc  buildings  are  those  of  the  five  cassarias,  which 
serve  as  barracks  for  the  soldiery.  The  dey's  palace  has  two 
fine  courts,  surrounded  with  spacious  galleries,  surmounted  by 
two  rows  of  marble  columns  ;  its  internal  ornaments  consist 
chiefly  of  mirrors,  clocks,  and  carpets.  There  are  sundry 
taverns  kept  in  the  city  by  Christian  slaves,  which  are  often 
frequented  even  by  the  Turks  and  Moors.  The  population 
has  been  variously  estimated,  on  the  authority  of  different 
writers,  who  must  have  formed  their  estimates  on  very  vague 
grounds.  Salame  thinks  there  are  20,000  houses,  and  that 
the  circuit  of  the  walls  is  not  less  than  four  miles,  thereby 
affording  a  basis  on  which  we  might  raise  an  exaggerated 
computation  as  to  the  number  of  inhabitants.  Shaw,  who 
reduces  the  extent  of  the  city  to  the  circumference  of  a  mile 
and  a  half,  relates,  that  it  is  supposed  to  contain  about  2,000 
Christian  slaves,  15,000  Jews,  and  100,000  Mohammedans.* 

It  is  observed  by  Pananti,  that  though  there  are  taverns  in 
Algiers,  tiiere  is  no  convenience  in  them  for  sleeping;  so 
that  those  who  enter  it  from  the  country  are  obliged  to  lodge 
with  some  friend,  while  European  merchants  hire  apartments 
in  the  houses  of  Jews.  The  inmiediate  vicinity  of  the  town, 
he  remarks,  is  understood  to  contain  about  twenty  thousand 
vineyards  and  gardens ;  the  beauty  of  these  environs  being 
in  no  respect  inferior  to  that  of  Richmond,  Chantilly,  or 
Fiesole.  Its  effect,  however,  is  much  lessened  when  we  re- 
flect on  the  people  into  whose  possession  so  fine  a  country 
has  fallen.    The  landscape  is  truly  delightful  if  viewed  only 

*  Pananti,  Narrative  of  a  Residence  in  Algiers,  p.  114. 
Travels  in  Barbary,  vol.  1.,  p.  33. 


236  THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS. 


with  a  passing  and  rapid  glance  ;  but  when  the  eye  rests 
upon  it,  the  barrenness  and  aridity  of  many  spots  are  dis- 
closed, showing  the  contempt  of  its  barbarous  inhabitants  for 
agricuhure,  the  place  of  which  they  endeavour  to  supply  by 
dedicating  themselves  to  war  and  plunder.* 

When  Dr.  Shaw,  about  a  hundred  years  ago,  resided  at 
Algiers,  the  walls  were  weak  and  of  httle  defence,  unless 
•where  they  were  farther  secured  by  some  additional  fortifica- 
tion. The  port,  we  may  subjoin  on  the  same  authority,  is  of 
an  oblong  figure,  130  fathoms  in  length  and  eighty  broad. 
The  Round  Castle  at  the  mouth  of  the  harbour,  built  by  the 
Spaniards  when  they  were  masters  of  the  island,  and  the  two 
large  batteries,  were  said  to  be  bomb-proof,  and  had  each  of 
them  their  lower  embrasures  furnished  with  thirty-six  pound- 
ers. The  guns  were  of  brass,  and  their  carriages  and  other 
appendages  in  good  order.  The  battery  of  the  Mole  Gate, 
upon  the  eastern  angle  of  the  city,  was  mounted  with  several 
long  pieces  of  ordnance,  one  of  which  had  seven  cylinders 
three  inches  in  diameter.  Half  a  furlong  to  the  southwest 
of  the  harbour  was  the  battery  of  the  Fishers'  Gate,  which, 
consisting  of  a  double  row  of  cannon,  commanded  the  en- 
trance into  the  port  and  the  roadstead  before  it.  But  none 
of  these  fortifications  were  assisted  either  with  mines  or  ad- 
vanced works  ;  and  as  the  soldiers  whose  duty  it  was  to  de- 
fend them  could  not  be  brought  to  a  course  of  regular  disci- 
pline, a  few  resolute  battalions,  protected  by  a  small  fleet, 
would  have  found  little  difficulty  in  reducing  the  whole  and 
expelling  the  garrisons. t 

The  descriptions  given  by  Pitts  and  Shaw,  early  in  the 
last  century,  are  confirmed  by  the  actual  condition  of  the 
place  when  attacked  by  the  French  and  Enghsh.  Salame, 
who  in  1816  attended  the  British  admiral  as  interpreter,  and 
who  was  allowed  to  visit  the  capital  in  person,  inserts  in  his 
narrative  the  following  details  : — "  On  the  north  side,  about  a 
mile  from  the  town,  there  is  a  small  castle  and  several  bat- 
teries, the  last  of  which  is  joined  to  the  walls  of  the  city.  In 
this  quarter  they  do  not  fear  any  thing,  because  there  is  not 
water  enough  for  anchorage  nor  for  landing.  From  this  wall 
to  the  mole  there  are  several  batteries  more,  because  this  de- 

*  Narrative,  &c.,  p.  113. 

t  Travels  in  Barbary,  vol.  i.,  p.  84. 


THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS.  237 


fence  is  erected  in  the  centre  of  that  part  of  the  city  which 
fronts  the  sea.  On  the  north  head  of  the  mole  there  is  a 
semicircular  battery  of  two  tiers  of  forty-four  guns,  called  the 
Lion's  Battery,  the  fire  of  which  bezirs  on  the  north,  on  the 
east,  and  on  the  south.  After  this  is  another  round  one,  of 
three  tiers  and  of  forty-eight  cannons,  in  the  middle  of  which 
there  is  built  a  tower  or  lighthouse  ;  and  they  call  it  the 
Lighthouse  Battery.  This  is  supported  by  another,  a  long 
one,  still  more  strong,  of  three  tiers,  containing  sixty-six 
guns,  and  called  the  Eastern  Battery.  This  is  flanked  by 
four  more  of  two  tiers,  one  joined  to  the  other,  which  mount 
sixty  guns,  directed  towards  the  southeast  and  the  south. 
On  the  south  head  of  the  mole  there  are  two  large  sixty-eight 
pounders,  twenty  feet  long.  Almost  opposite,  there  ^re  on 
the  city-side  two  small  batteries  of  four  guns  each ;  but 
these  are  followed  by  a  strong  battery  of  twenty  guns  and  a 
very  ancient  building  situated  upon  two  large  arches.  From 
this  to  the  south  wall  of  the  city  there  are  two  batteries 
more  ;  and  from  that  to  a  distance  of  about  a  mile  and  a  half 
south  there  are  several  other  batteries  and  a  large  castle. 
These  are  their  defences  on  the  seaside  ;  but  the  rest  of  the 
works  round  the  walls  of  the  city,  and  the  two  castles  situ- 
ated upon  the  hills,  were  too  far  off  for  me  to  observe  them 
well :  they  say  that  the  whole  of  their  fortifications  mounted 
1,500  guns."* 

It  has  been  already  remarked,  that  the  interior  of  this  bar- 
baric metropolis  does  not  correspond  to  the  impression  made 
upon  the  eye  of  a  voyager  who  approaches  it  from  the  north- 
eastern point  of  the  compass.  The  foreigner  whose  observa- 
tions have  just  been  transcribed  relates,  that  when  the  en- 
voys from  Lord  Exmouth  entered  the  gates,  they  "saw  every 
thiog  contrary  to  its  fine  appearance  outside."  The  streets 
are  very  narrow,  dirty,  and  dark,  and  were  at  that  time  full 
of  rubbish.  The  buildings  are  all  of  stone,  as  well  as  the 
tops  and  floors  of  the  houses,  with  very  Httle  wood.  Every 
four  or  five  tenements  are  bound  together  by  arches  ;  and 
they  have  but  very  small  windows.  This  city,  therefore, 
could  never  be  burnt  by  rockets ;  shells  are  the  surest 
means  for  its  destruction.  The  following  view,  taken  by  an 
eminent  French  artist,  will  give  a  good  idea  of  the  general 


»  Expedition  to  Algiers,  p.  30,  &c. 


238 


View  of  a  Street  in  Algiers. 


appearance  of  the  edifices  in  Algiers,  and  some  notion  of  the 
manner  in  which  the  native  architects  construct  their  dwel- 
lings. 

Before  entering  upon  the  topographical  description  neces- 
sary to  illustrate  the  present  state  of  the  several  provinces, 
we  shall  resume  the  history  of  Algiers  at  the  date  when  it 
was  placed  under  the  dominion  of  the  Turks  by  the  younger 
Barbarossa.  As  soon  as  this  renowned  corsair  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  command  of  the  Ottoman  fleet,  the  country 
which  he  had  conquered  by  arms  and  deceit  was  committed 
to  the  superintendence  of  Hassan  Aga,  a  renegade  eunuch, 
who,  having  passed  through  every  station  in  the  pirate's  ser- 
vice, had  gained  such  experience  in  war  as  well  fitted  him 
for  an  office  which  required  a  man  of  tried  and  daring 


THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS.  239 


courage.  Hassan,  to  show  how  much  he  deserved  the 
dignity  thus  conferred  upon  him,  carried  on  his  wonted  dep- 
redations  against  the  Christian  states  with  amazing  acti\-ity, 
and  even  surpassed  Redbeard  himself  in  boldness  and  cruelty. 
The  commerce  of  the  Mediterranean  was  greatly  interrupted 
by  his  cruisers,  and  such  frequent  alarms  were  given  to  the 
coast  of  Spain,  that  there  was  a  necessity  of  erecting  watch- 
towers  at  proper  distances,  and  of  keeping  guards  constantly 
on  foot,  in  order  to  descry  the  approach  of  his  squadrons,  and 
to  protect  the  inhabitants  from  their  ravages.  Of  this  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.  had  received  repeated  complaints  from 
his  subjects,  who  represented  it  as  an  enterprise  suitable  at 
once  to  his  power  and  benevolence,  to  reduce  Algiers,  which, 
since  the  conquest  of  Tunis,  was  become  the  common  re- 
ceptacle of  all  freebooters.  They  urged  upon  him,  not  less 
from  considerations  of  humanity  than  of  political  prudence, 
the  duty  of  exterminating  that  lawless  race,  the  implacable 
enemies  of  the  Christian  name. 

A.  D.  1541.  Charles,  who  was  at  war  with  the  sultan  as 
well  as  the  King  of  France,  would  have  found  ample  em- 
ployment for  his  troops  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  as  well 
as  in  the  Low  Countries,  always  menaced  by  his  active 
enemy.  But,  in  opposition  to  the  judgment  of  some  of  his 
wisest  counsellors,  he  resolved  to  chastise  the  barbarians  on 
the  African  coast ;  and  with  this  view  had  already  given  or- 
ders to  prepare  a  fleet  and  a  large  body  of  land-forces.  The 
season  unfortunately  was  far  advanced,  on  which  account  the 
Pope  entreated,  and  Doria  conjured  him  not  to  expose  his 
whole  armament  to  a  destruction  almost  unavoidable  on  a 
wild  shore  during  the  violence  of  the  autumnal  gales.  Ad- 
hering, however,  to  his  plan  with  determined  obstinacy,  he 
embarked  at  Porto  Venere  on  board  the  admiral's  galley, 
and  soon  found  that  this  experienced  sailor  had  not  judged 
wrong  concerning  the  element  with  which  he  was  so  well  ac- 
quainted. But  as  his  courage  was  undaunted,  and  his  tem- 
per often  inflexible,  the  danger  to  which  he  was  exposed  had 
no  other  eflfect  than  to  confirm  him  in  his  fatal  resolution. 
The  force,  indeed,  which  he  had  collected,  was  such  as  might 
have  inspired  a  prince  less  adventurous,  and  less  confident  in 
his  own  schemes,  with  the  most  sanguine  hopes  of  success. 
It  consisted  of  20,000  foot  and  2,000  horse,  mostly  veterans, 
together  with  3,000  volunteers,  the  flower  of  the  Spanish  and 


240 


THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS. 


Italian  nobility,  who  were  desirous  of  paying  court  to  the  ent- 
peror,  by  attending  him  in  his  favourite  expedition,  and  eager 
to  share  in  the  glory  which  they  believed  was  about  to  crown 
his  arms.  Besides  these,  there  had  joined  his  standard  a 
thousand  soldiers  sent  by  the  Order  of  St.  John,  and  led  by 
a  hundred  of  its  most  valiant  knights. 

Landing  near  Algiers  without  opposition,  Charles  imme- 
diately advanced  towards  the  town.  To  oppose  the  in- 
vaders, Hassan  had  only  800  Turks  and  5,000  Moors,  partly 
natives  of  Africa,  and  partly  refugees  from  Spain.  When 
summoned  to  surrender,  he,  nevertheless,  returned  a  fierce 
and  haughty  answer.  But  with  such  a  handful  of  troops, 
neither  his  desperate  courage  nor  consummate  skill  in  war 
could  have  long  resisted  forces  superior  to  those  which  had 
formerly  defeated  Barbarossa  at  the  head  of  60,000  men,  and 
reduced  Tunis  in  spite  of  all  his  efforts  to  save  it.  The 
renegade,  however,  found  in  a  physical  event  an  auxiliary 
which  more  than  counterbalanced  the  inequality  of  the  con- 
tending armies  ;  while  his  antagonist  saw  himself  exposed  to 
a  dreadful  calamity,  against  which  human  prudence  and  ex- 
ertion could  avail  nothing.  On  the  second  day  after  his  de- 
barkation, and  before  he  had  time  for  any  thing  more  than  to 
disperse  some  Arabs  who  molested  his  soldiers  on  their 
march,  the  clouds  were  seen  to  gather,  and  the  heavens  as- 
sumed a  threatening  aspect.  Towards  evening  rain  began  to 
fall,  accompanied  with  a  violent  wind  ;  and  the  rage  of  the 
tempest  increasing  during  the  night,  the  men,  who  had 
brought  nothing  ashore  but  their  arms,  remained  exposed  to 
all  its  fury,  without  tents  or  cover  of  any  kind.  The  ground 
was  soon  so  wet  that  they  could  not  lie  down  on  it ;  their 
camp,  being  in  a  low  situation,  was  overflowed  with  water, 
and  they  sunk  at  every  step  to  the  ankles  in  mud ;  while  the 
hurricane  augmented  to  such  a  degree  ihat,  to  prevent  them- 
selves from  being  blown  down,  they  were  obliged  to  thrust 
their  spears  into  the  earth,  and  lay  hold  of  them  as  a  support. 
Hassan  was  too  vigilant  an  officer  to  allow  so  favourable  an 
opportunity  to  escape  for  attacking  his  enemy  to  advantage. 
At  the  dawn  of  day  he  sallied  out  at  the  head  of  his  warriors, 
who,  having  been  screened  from  the  storm  under  their  own 
roofs,  were  fresh  atKi  vigorous  ;  whereas  a  body  of  Itahans, 
who  were  stationed  nearest  the  city,  dispirited  and  benumbed 
with  cold,  fled  at  the  approach  of  his  Turks.    The  troops  at 


THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS.  241 

the  next  post  showed  indeed  greater  courage  ;  but  the  rair; 
had  rendered  their  muskets  useless,  and  having  scarcely 
strength  to  handle  their  other  arms,  they  were  soon  thrown 
into  confusion.  Almost  the  whole  army,  with  the  emperor 
himself  in  person,  was  obliged  to  advance  before  the  barba- 
rians could  be  repulsed  ;  who,  after  spreading  such  general 
consternation,  and  killing  a  considerable  number  of  men,  re- 
tired at  last  in  good  order. 

But  all  the  feeling  of  this  disaster  was  soon  obliterated  by 
a  more  affecting  spectacle.  As  the  tempest  continued  with 
unabated  violence,  the  full  light  of  day  showed  the  ships,  on 
which  alone  their  safety  depended,  driving  from  their  anchors, 
dashing  against  one  another,  and  many  of  them  forced  on 
the  rocks,  or  sinking  in  the  waters.  In  less  than  an  hour, 
fifteen  ships  of  war  and  140  transports,  with  8,000  men,  per- 
ished before  their  eyes  ;  and  such  of  the  unhappy  sailors  as 
escaped  the  fury  of  the  sea,  were  murdered  by  the  Arabs  as 
soon  as  they  reached  land.  Charles  stood  in  silent  anguish 
and  astonishment,  witnessing  this  miserable  scene,  which  at 
once  blasted  all  his  hopes  of  success,  and  buried  in  the 
waves  the  vast  stores  he  had  provided,  as  well  for  the  sub- 
sistence of  his  troops  as  the  conquest  of  the  country.  At 
length  the  approach  of  evening  covered  the  face  of  the  deep 
with  darkness  ;  and  as  it  was  impossible  for  the  officers 
aboard  the  squadron  to  send  any  intelligence  to  their  com- 
panions who  were  ashore,  these  last  passed  the  night  in  all 
the  anguish  of  suspense  and  apprehension.  Next  morning,  a 
boat  despatched  by  Doria  reached  the  land  with  information 
that,  having  survived  the  storm,  to  which,  during  fifty  years 
of  a  seaman's  life,  he  had  never  known  any  equal  in  fierce- 
ness and  horror,  he  had  found  it  necessary  to  bear  away  with 
his  shattered  vessels  to  Cape  Matafuz.  He  advised  the  em- 
peror, as  the  sky  was  still  tempestuous,  to  march  with  all 
speed  to  that  place,  where  the  army  could  re-embark  with 
greater  ease. 

This  intelligence,  though  gratifying,  did  not  fail  to  involve 
Charles  in  other  cares.  The  point  named  by  the  admiral 
was  at  least  three  days'  march  from  his  present  position  ;  all 
his  provisions  were  consumed  ;  his  men,  worn  out  with  fa- 
tigue, were  hardly  equal  to  such  a  movement,  even  in  a 
friendly  country ;  and  being  dispirited  by  a  succession  of 
hardships,  they  were  in  no  condition  to  undergo  new  toils. 


242  THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS. 

But,  as  there  was  no  time  for  deliberation,  the  camp  was  in- 
stantly broken  up  ;  and  then  the  sad  eifects  of  what  they 
had  suffered  began  tc  appear  in  a  stronger  light,  and  deeper 
calamities  were  about  to  be  added  to  these  which  they  had. 
already  endured.  Some  could  hardly  bear  the  weight  of 
their  arms  ;  others,  unable  to  force  their  way  through  deep 
roads,  sunk  down  and  died  ;  many  perished  by  famine,  as 
the  whole  army  subsisted  chiefly  on  roots  and  berries,  or  on 
the  flesh  of  horses,  killed  for  that  purpose  by  the  emperor's 
orders  ;  numbers  were  drowned  in  the  swollen  brooks ;  and 
not  a  few  were  slain  by  the  enemy,  who,  during  the  greatest 
part  of  the  retreat,  harassed  them  day  and  night.  When 
they  arrived  at  Matafuz,  the  weather  was  so  much  improved 
as  to  allow  a  renewal  of  the  communication  with  the  fleet, 
whence  they  were  supplied  with  provision,  and  animated 
with  the  prospect  of  returning  in  safety  to  Europe.  But  in 
cherishing  this  hope  they  were  only  preparing  for  themselves 
a  deeper  disappointment  ;  for  no  sooner  were  they  on  board 
than,  a  new  storm  arising,  the  ships  were  scattered,  and 
compelled  to  take  refuge  in  the  nearest  ports  of  Italy  or 
Spain.  The  emperor  himself  was  driven  back  to  the  Afri- 
can coast,  where  he  was  obliged  by  contrary  winds  to  remain 
several  weeks  ;  and  at  last  he  reached  his  own  dominions  in 
a  conditioa  very  different  from  that  in  which  he  finished  his 
triumphant  expedition  against  Tunis. 

It  was  remarked  that,  during  these  severe  disasters,  his 
fortitude  and  magnanimity  never  forsook  him.  He  endured 
as  great  hardships  as  the  meanest  soldier  ;  exposed  his  per- 
son to  all  dangers  ;  visited  the  sick  and  wounded  ;  and  en- 
couraged every  one  by  his  words  and  example.  "When  the 
army  embarked,  he  was  among  the  la"St  who  left  the  shore, 
although  a  body  of  Arabs  hovered  at  no  great  distance  ready 
to  fall  on  his  rear.  By  these  virtues  he  atoned  in  some 
measure  for  his  obstinacy  and  presumption,  in  undertaking  an 
expedition  at  once  so  fatal  and  so  mortifying  to  his  subjects.* 

These  hostilities,  pursued  by  Charles,  had  i.ideed  their 
origin  at  a  still  earlier  period.  When,  at  the  end  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  the  Moors  were  expelled  from  Spain  by 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  the  fears  and  hatred  of  the  Chris- 
tians followed  them  to  their  new  abode  on  the  opposite 


*  Reign  of  Charles  V.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  223. 


THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS. 


243 


shores.  Cardinal  Ximenes,  who  at  that  period  directed  the 
councils  of  his  royal  master,  prevailed  on  him  to  fit  out  an 
armament,  in  order  to  prevent  the  vindictive  Mussulmans 
from  acquiring  such  a  degree  of  strength  as  might  render 
them  formidable  to  the  united  kingdom  of  Castile  and  Arra- 
gon.  A  fleet,  carrying  5,000  soldiers,  proceeded  from  the 
harbour  of  Malaga  in  the  month  of  August,  1504,  and 
landing  near  the  fort  of  Marsa-Kebir,  the  "  Tortus  Magnus" 
of  the  Romans,  took  possession  of  it  with  little  loss.  About 
five  years  afterward,  the  cardinal  himself,  whose  zeal  never 
cooled,  assumed  the  direction  of  a  powerful  armament,  the 
object  of  which  was  to  reduce  Oran,  a  town  not  more  than 
a  league  distant  from  the  seaport  just  described.  This  en- 
terprise was  likewise  crowned  with  complete  success  ;  upon 
which  the  most  reverend  prelate  committed  the  care  of  the 
expedition  to  Don  Pedro  de  Navarro,  the  general-in-chief, 
after  instructing  him  to  extend  his  conquests  over  the  whole 
of  the  adjacent  country. 

The  Spanish  commander,  upon  reducing  several  places  in 
the  neighbourhood,  shaped  his  course  towards  Bujeya,  which 
fell  to  him  without  making  any  resistance.  The  surrender 
of  this  stronghold,  which  the  Moors  and  Arabs  deemed  im- 
pregnable, was  followed  by  the  submission  of  all  the  others 
along  the  coast  ;  the  rulers  of  which  sent  deputies  to  the 
victor  to  solicit  peace,  expressing  their  readiness  to  receive 
his  soldiers  in  name  of  garrison,  and  even  to  become  tribu- 
tary to  the  crown  of  Castile.  Algiers,  which  was  then  of  no 
great  importance,  was  the  first  to  open  its  gates  ;  and  it-was 
at  this  conjuncture  that  the  troops  of  Ferdinand  built  the 
fortress  on  the  small  rocky  isle  at  the  mouth  of  its  harbour, 
which  has  since  been  enlarged  into  those  magnificent  de- 
fences wherein  the  piratical  inhabitants  have,  during  two  cen- 
turies, reposed  their  confidence.  But  the  Moors  soon  be- 
came impatient  of  the  heavy  yoke  imposed  on  them  by  their 
bigoted  conquerors.  They  seized  the  first  opportunity  to  re- 
volt, with  the  view  of  chasing  from  their  towns  the  infidel 
invaders  ;  in  the  course  of  which  effort  they  adopted  the  im- 
politic resolution  of  asking  the  aid  of  Barbarossa,  who,  as 
we  have  seen,  terminated  his  alliance  by  subjecting  them  to 
the  government  of  his  patron  the  Grand  Turk. 

The  Spaniards,  though  driven  from  the  open  country,  still 
kept  possession  of  0?an  and  other  fortified  stations  on  the 


244 


THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS. 


coast,  which  they  retained  till  the  year  1708,  when  the  Al- 
gerines,  taking  advantage  of  the  weakness  entailed  upon  their 
enemies  by  the  Succession  War,  succeeded  in  expelling  the 
Christian  garrisons.  In  1762,  Philip  V.  sent  the  Count  of 
Montemar,  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  30,000  men,  who  beat 
the  Moors,  the  Arabs,  and  the  Turks  united,  and  once  more 
established  the  authority  of  his  sovereign  in  Gran  and  along 
the  contiguous  shore.  This  conquest  was  maintained  down 
to  the  year  1790,  when  the  place  was  entirely  destroyed  by 
an  earthquake.  On  this  melancholy  occurrence,  Charles 
IV.,  unwilling  to  incur  the  expense  of  rebuilding  it,  gave  or- 
ders to  evacuate  the  ruins  ;  having  previously  concluded  a 
treaty  with  the  dey,  in  virtue  of  which  he  ceded  it  to  his 
highness,  as  well  as  the  artillery  and  military  stores,  the 
greater  part  of  which  had  been  saved.  Since  that  period, 
the  Europeans  have  had  no  establishment  on  the  coast  of 
Barbary,  but  with  the  consent  of  the  sovereign  of  Algiers 
and  the  Beys  of  Tunis  and  Tripoli. 

We  find  in  a  periodical  work  a  notice  of  another  expedi- 
tion made  by  Spain  for  the  chastisement  or  recovery  of  Al- 
giers. In  1775,  General  O'Reilly  is  said  to  have  landed  near 
that  receptacle  of  freebooters,  but  was  compelled  to  re-embark 
in  haste  and  with  considerable  loss.* 

The  French,  though  at  a  different  period,  were  no  less  ac- 
tive than  the  Spaniards  in  their  attempts  to  suppress  the 
Barbary  corsairs.  In  1617,  M.  Beaulieu  was  sent  against 
the  Algerines  with  a  squadron  of  fifty  men-of-war,  which  de- 
feated their  fleet  and  took  two  of  their  vessels,  while  their 
admiral  sunk  his  own  ship  and  crew  rather  than  fall  into  his 
enemies'  hands.  By  such  decisive  measures  Louis  XIII. 
obtained  permission  to  build  a  fort  on  their  coasts  in  place  of 
the  one  formerly  occupied  by  the  Marsilians,  which  the  na- 
tives had  demolished.  This,  after  some  difficulty,  he  accom- 
plished, and  it  was  called  the  Bastion  of  France ;  but  the 
situation  being  afterward  found  inconvenient,  the  French  pur- 
chased the  fort  of  La  Gala,  and  obtained  liberty  to  trade  with 
the  Arabs  and  Moors. 

Enriched  with  the  booty  acquired  in  their  piratical  expedi- 
tions, and  inspirited  by  their  occasional  success  over  the  fleets 
of  the  greatest  nations  of  Europe,  the  chiefs  of  Algiers, 


*  Penny  Cyclopaedia,  vol.  L,  p,  329. 


THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS.  245 


though  they  consented  to  make  terms  with  England,  France, 
and  Holland,  swore  eternal  war  against  the  Spaniards,  Por- 
tuguese, and  Italians,  whom  they  regarded  as  the  most  de- 
termined enemies  of  the  Mohammedan  name.  At  length, 
Louis  XIV.,  provoked  by  the  outrages  they  committed  on  the 
coasts  of  Provence  and  Languedoc,  sent  Admiral  Duquesne, 
in  1682,  at  the  head  of  a  considerable  force,  to  chastise  the 
robbers  and  release  the  captives  who  had  fallen  into  their 
hands.  These  orders  were  executed  with  so  much  vigour, 
that  the  town,  assailed  by  cannon  and  bombs,  was  soon  en- 
veloped in  flames  ;  the  great  mosque  was  battered  down,  and 
most  of  the  houses  were  laid  in  ruins.  A  sudden  change  of 
wind  prevented  him  from  fully  accomplishing  his  purpose  ; 
and  it  was  not  till  the  summer  of  the  following  year  that  he 
poured  upon  the  devoted  inhabitants  the  vengeance  of  an  in- 
censed and  injured  kingdom.  Sending  showers  of  bombs 
into  the  city  several  successive  days  and  nights,  he  created 
so  much  devastation  that  the  army  and  all  ranks  of  the  state 
sued  for  peace.  The  preliminary  conditions  were,  the  sur- 
render of  all  Christian  slaves  taken  under  the  French  flag, 
and  the  delivery  of  certain  hostages  to  secure  a  due  fulfil- 
ment of  the  treaty  ;  which  latter  stipulation,  as  it  seemed  to 
involve  the  fate  of  two  high  officers,  led  to  a  revolution  in 
the  government,  the  murder  of  the  dey,  and  the  renewal  of 
hostiliti*^s  with  greater  fury  than  ever. 

Duquesne,  enraged  at  this  breach  of  faith,  continued  to 
pour  in  such  volleys  of  shells  that,  in  less  than  three  days, 
the  greater  part  of  the  city  was  reduced  to  ashes  ;  and  the 
fire  burnt  with  such  vehemence,  that  the  sea  was  illumined 
by  it  more  than  two  leagues  around.  The  new  dey,  un- 
moved at  these  disasters,  breathed  only  revenge  ;  and  after 
having  put  to  death  all  the  French  who  happened  to  be  in 
his  power,  he  ordered  their  consul  to  be  tied  hand  and  foot, 
and  fastened  alive  to  the  mouth  of  a  large  cannon,  whence 
he  was  shot  away  and  blown  to  atoms.  By  this  piece  of  in- 
humanity the  admiral  was  so  exasperated,  that  he  did  not 
leave  Algiers  until  he  had  utterly  destroyed  its  fortifications, 
chipping,  arsenals,  and  stores,  and  reduced  nearly  the  whole 
Cif  its  buildings  to  a  mass  of  rubbish.* 

All  the  powers  of  Europe,  indeed,  who  had  ships  at  sea, 


♦  Encyc/opaedia  Britannica,  seventh  edition,  article  Algiers, 
X2 


246 


THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS. 


found  it  necessary  from  time  to  time  to  interpose  for  the  pro- 
tection of  their  trade  and  the  honour  of  their  flag.  The 
Dutch,  for  example,  after  several  bloody  combats,  consented  to 
pay  a  sum  of  money,  and  thereby  purchase  for  their  national 
colours  a  show  of  respect,  and  for  their  merchantmen  an  ex- 
emption from  plunder.  The  Danes  and  Swedes,  too,  de- 
spairing of  success  by  compulsory  means,  adopted  a  similar 
policy..  The  Austrians  and  Russians,  on  the  other  hand, 
were  protected  by  the  special  authority  of  the  Porte,  who 
had  bound  himself  to  that  effect  by  positive  treaties.  The 
Americans,  about  twenty  years  ago,  checked  by  a  vigorous 
attack  the  lawless  exactions  of  the  Algerine  power.  Having 
lost  in  battle  a  frigate  and  a  brig,  the  dey  acceded  to  a  paci- 
fication, by  which  he  consented  to  renounce  all  tribute,  and 
to  pay  to  the  victors  60,000  dollars  as  a  compensation  for  the 
ships  his  cruisers  had  robbed  or  otherwise  injured.  The 
Italian  States  have  all  along  been  the  severest  sufferers  from 
fhe  Barbary  corsairs,  because,  while  they  have  had  a  great 
number  of  small  vessels  employed  in  their  coasting-trade, 
they  possessed  no  navy  of  sufficient  strength  to  repress  the 
depredations  to  which  they  were  exposed. 

In  1620,  a  squadron  of  English  men-of-war  was  sent  against 
Algiers  under  the  command  of  Sir  Robert  Mansel ;  but  of 
this  expedition  we  have  no  other  account  than  that  it  returned 
without  effecting  any  thing  important.  It  has  been  already 
stated  that,  during  the  vigortms  government  of  the  Common- 
wealth, the  gallant  Blake  inflicted  a  severe  castigation  on  the 
Tunisians,  and  at  the  same  time  taught  the  marauding  sub- 
jects of  the  dey  to  dread  the  power  of  England.  During 
more  than  a  century,  no  events  occur  which  might  illustrate 
the  tone  of  feeling  that  subsisted  between  the  Barbary  States 
and  our  government.  The  losses  sustained  by  the  Alge- 
rines  during  the -i-epeated  attacks  by  Duquesne,  in  1682  and 
the  following  year,  had  so  far  brought  them  to  reason,  that 
they  consented  to  enter  into  a  treaty  advantageous  and  hon- 
ourable to  the  government  of  James  the  Second.  But,  not- 
withstanding their  desire  for  peace  with  a  nation  now  be- 
come so  formidable  at  sea,  they  lost  no  opportunity  of  making 
prizes  of  all  such  British  ships  as  they  could  conveniently 
reach.  Upon  some  outrage  of  this  kind,  Captain  Beach,  in 
1695,  drove  ashore  and  burnt  seven  of  their  frigates — an  act 
of  vigour  which  produced  a  renewal  of  negotiation,  and  ex- 


THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS.  247 


torted  a  promise  of  various  concessions.  It  was  not,  how- 
ever, till  the  British  had  taken  Gibraltar  and  Port  Mahon, 
that  they  could  exercise  such  a  check  upon  the  pirates  as  to 
enforce  the  observation  of  treaties  ;  and  since  that  period 
they  have  generally  shown  a  greater  deference  to  our  wishes 
than  to  those  of  any  other  European  power.  The  French, 
who,  by  mingled  force  and  flattery,  had  acquired  an  ascen- 
dency at  the  Algerine  court,  connived  at  the  ravages  com- 
mitted on  the  commerce  of  the  less  warlike  nations  ;  aware 
that  the  carrying-trade  must  necessarily  be  secured  for  the 
merchants  of  those  kingdoms  whose  ships  were  in  no  danger 
of  being  detained  or  pillaged  by  the  maritime  robbers.  This 
paltry  consideration,  there  is  no  doubt,  induced  some  of  the 
more  powerful  monarchies  of  Europe,  not  only  to  tolerate 
the  African  corsairs,  but  even  to  supply  them  with  arms  and 
ammunition,  to  solicit  their  passes,  and  to  purchase  their  for- 
bearance by  annual  presents,  which  were  in  effect  nothing 
different  from  disguised  tribute.  All  the  condescension, 
however,  of  those  who  disgraced  themselves  with  the  title  of 
aUies  to  these  miscreants,  was  not  sufficient  to  restrain  their 
privateers  from  acts  of  cruelty  and  rapine. 

In  the  year  1748,  four  cruisers  from  Algiers  captured  an 
English  packetboat,  on  her  voyage  from  Lisbon,  and  conveyed 
her  into  port,  where  she  was  plundered  of  money  and  effects 
to  the  amount  of  at  least  100,000/.  Incensed  at  this  out- 
rage, the  British  ministry  despatched  Commodore  Keppel 
with  seven  ships  of  war  to  demand  satisfaction,  as  well  as 
to  compromise  certain  differences  which  had  arisen  between 
his  majesty  and  the  dey,  relative  to  some  arrears  of  payment 
claimed  by  the  latter.  His  highness  frankly  owned  that  the 
money  seized  in  the  prize  had  been  divided  among  the  cap- 
tors, and  could  not  possibly  be  refunded.  Keppel  returned 
to  Gibraltar  ;  and,  in  the  sequel,  an  Algerine  ambassador 
arrived  at  London  with  a  present  of  some  wild  beasts  for 
George  the  Second.  This  transaction  was  soon  succeeded 
by  one  still  more  disgraceful.  Mr.  Latton,  a  commissioner 
sent  to  redeem  English  captives,  was  grossly  insulted  by  the 
Governor  of  Tetuan,  because  he  would  not  consent  to  pay  a 
sum  for  which  he  was  net  accountable.  His  house  was 
surrounded  by  soldiers,  who  dragged  his  secretary  from  his 
presence,  and  threw  him  into  a  dungeon ;  the  Christian 
slaves  were  condemned  to  the  same  fate ;  the  ambassador 


248 


THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS. 


himself  was  degraded  from  his  character,  deprived  of  his 
allowance,  and  sequestered  from  all  communication.  And 
yet,  after  these  numerous  indignities  offered  to  the  honour 
of  the  British  nation,  the  balance  demanded  by  the  Turk 
was  duly  paid,  and  the  affair  quietly  adjusted.* 

As  the  naval  power  of  Britain  increased,  the  ravages  of 
the  Barbary  corsairs  became  less  frequent  and  atrocious. 
They  no  longer  domineered  over  the  high  seas,  nor  attempted 
to  annoy  the  vessels  belonging  to  the  greater  nations  ;  nor 
did  the  latter  deign  to  purchase  immunity  by  the  continuance 
of  a  disgraceful  tribute.  The  Algerines  more  prudently 
selected  for  their  prey  the  small  kingdoms  of  the  Sicilies  and 
Sardinia  ;  making  descents  upon  their  coasts  ;  carrying  off 
all  kinds  of  property,  and  even  such  of  the  inhabitants  of 
both  sexes  as  might  seem  most  suitable  for  the  slave-market. 
At  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  accordingly,  it  became  a  subject 
of  deliberation  what  means  should  be  adopted  to  put  a  final 
stop  to  these  enormities,  and  to  secure  protection  to  the 
Italian  shores,  which  had  suffered  so  much  from  the  barba- 
rian invaders.  The  return  of  Bonaparte  from  Elba  prevented 
the  arrangement  of  measures  for  accomplishing  this  desirable 
object ;  but  no  sooner  was  the  peace  of  Europe  again  restored, 
than  the  British  government,  in  conjunction  \*ith  the  Dutch, 
resolved  to  give  efficiency  to  the  wishes  of  their  allies.  Lord 
Exmouth  and  Sir  Thomas  Maitland,  invested  with  the  com- 
mand of  separate  squadrons,  were  'sent  to  Tunis  to  demand 
the  restitution  of  all  the  captives  actually  in  bondage,  and 
the  relinquishment  for  ever  of  those  piratical  practices,  which 
were  so  justly  condemned  by  the  European  sovereigns.  In  this 
mission  the  gallant  commanders  succeeded,  and  were  grati- 
fied not  only  by  the  liberation  of  the  unfortunate  persons  who 
had  already  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  rovers,  but  also  with 
the  assurance  that  nothing  more  than  the  sanction  of  the 
Porte  was  required  in  order  to  abolish  Christian  slavery  in 
all  future  times. 

These  concessions  enraged  the  Algerines,  who  instantly 
began  to  strengthen  their  fortifications,  as  if  they  had  deter- 
mined to  resist  the  combined  force  of  all  the  maritime  states, 
&nd  pursue  their  violent  system  on  a  larger  scale.  The  sol- 
diery, in  their  blind  rage,  had  recourse  to  an  outrage  of  the 


*  History  of  England,  vol.  xi.,  p.  274,  edition  1812. 


THE  REGENCY  OP  ALGIERS. 


249 


most  execrable  nature.  A  number  of  vessels,  belonging  to 
Naples  and  the  neighbouring  ports,  had  been  in  the  practice 
of  assembling  at  Bona  to  carry  on  the  pearl-fishery,  in  which, 
upon  payment  of  an  annual  tribute,  they  were  protected  by 
the  dey.  Suddenly  these  peaceful  and  industrious  seamen 
were  surrounded  by  a  band  of  Moors,  who  commenced  an  in- 
discriminate massacre,  which  could  not  be  justified  on  any 
ground  or  pretence,  and  seems  to  have  had  no  object  but  to 
show  their  implacable  hatred  to  the  Christian  name.* 

This  cruel  insult  called  forth  the  fleets  of  England  and 
Holland,  and  led  to  the  memorable  attack  by  Lord  Exmouth 
in  August,  1816.  Sailing  with  five  ships  of  the  Ime  and 
eight  small  vessels,  he  was  joined  at  Gibraltar  by  Admiral 
Capellen  with  six  Dutch  frigates.  An  attempt  was  made  to 
withdraw  the  British  consul  and  his  family  from  the  danger 
and  embarrassment  in  which  they  could  not  fail  to  be  placed 
during  an  assault  on  the  town  ;  but  the  efforts  of  Cajjtain 
Dashwood,  who  was  intrusted  with  this  important  service, 
could  accomplish  nothing  besides  the  removal  of  two  ladies, 
the  wife  and  daughter  of  our  resident,  in  the  disguise  of 
naval  officers. 

It  was  not  till  the  26th  of  the  month  that  his  lordship  appear- 
ed before  Algiers,  when  he  sent  to  the  dey  a  flag  of  truce,  con- 
veying to  his  highness  the  conditions  on  which  alone  the  med- 
itated attack  might  be  averted.  He  insisted  on  the  final 
abolition  of  Christian  slavery ;  the  immediate  freedom  of  all 
slaves  within  the  territory  of  Algiers  ;  the  repayment  of  every 
ransom  paid  for  the  redemption  of  captives  by  the  Kings  of 
Sicily  and  Sardinia  ;  the  liberation  of  the  consul  and  all  other 
British  subjects  now  in  confinement ;  and,  lastly,  peace  with 
the  King  of  the  Netherlands.  Two  hours  were  allowed  to 
return  an  answer  ;  and  in  the  meantime,  as  a  favourable 
breeze  sprang  up,  Lord  Exmouth  moved  forward  his  ships 
till  he  found  himself  within  a  mile  of  the  batteries,  where  he 
remained  prepared  fcr  action. 

The  period  allowed  for  deliberation  having  elapsed,  the 
admiral's  ship  passed  through  all  the  enemy's  batteries  with- 
out firing  a  gun,  and,  to  the  astonishment  of  the  natives,  took 
up  a  position  within  less  than  100  yards  of  the  mole  ;  upon 
which,  says  M.  Salame,  the  interpreter,  we  gave  them  three 


*  Encyclopaedia  Brit.,  article  Algiers,  p.  510. 


250 


THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS. 


cheers  :  "  The  batteries  as  well  as  the  walls  being  crowded 
with  troops,  they  jumped  upon  the  top  of  the  parapets  to 
look  at  us,  for  our  broadside  was  higher  than  their  batteries  ; 
and  they  were  quite  surprised  to  see  a  three-decker  with  the 
rest  of  the  fleet  so  close  to  them.  From  what  I  observed  of 
the  captain  of  the  port's  manner,  and  of  their  confusion  inside 
of  the  mole,  I  am  quite  sure  that  even  they  themselves  did 
not  know  what  they  were  about,  nor  what  we  meant  to  do  ; 
because,  according  to  their  judgment,  they  thought  that  we 
should  be  terrified  by  their  fortifications,  and  not  advance 
so  rapidly  and  closely  to  the  attack.  In  proof  of  this,  I  must 
observe  that,  at  this  point,  their  guns  were  not  even  loaded ; 
and  they  began  to  load  them  after  the  Queen  Charlotte  and 
almost  all  the  fleet  had  passed  their  batteries.  At  a  few  min- 
utes before  three,  the  Algerines,  from  the  Eastern  Battery, 
fired  the  first  shot  at  the  Impregnable,  which,  with  the  Superb 
and  the  Albion,  was  astern  of  the  other  ships,  to  prevent  them 
from  coming  in.  Then  Lord  Exmouth,  having  seen  only  the 
smoke  of  the  gun,  before  the  sound  reached  him,  said  with 
great  alacrity,  'That  will  do  ;  fire,  my  fine  fellows  !'  and  I 
am  sure,  that  before  his  lordship  had  finished  these  words, 
our  broadside  was  given  with  great  cheering,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  other  ships  did  the  same.  The  first  fire  was 
so  terrible,  that,  they  say,  more  than  500  persons  were  killed 
or  wounded  by  it ;  and  I  believe  this,  because  there  was  a 
great  crowd  of  people  in  every  part,  many  of  whom,  after  the 
first  discharge,  I  saw  running  away,  like  dogs,  walking  upon 
their  hands  and  feet."  The  conflict  continued  with  unabated 
fury  on  both  sides  not  less  than  five  hours  ;  at  the  end  of 
which  time,  the  Algerines  beginning  to  lose  strength  or 
courage,  the  vivacity  of  their  fire  appeared  evidently  to  di- 
minish. At  eleven  o'clock,  his  lordship  having  observed  the 
destruction  of  their  whole  navy  and  the  strongest  part  of 
their  works,  made  a  signal  to  the  fleet  to  move  out  of  the 
line  of  the  batteries  ;  *'  and  thus,  with  a  favourable  breeze, 
we  cut  our  cables,  as  did  the  whole  squadron,  and  made 
sail  at  about  half  past  eleven.  At  this  time  their  navy,  with 
the  storehouses  within  the  mole,  were  burning  very  rapidly. 
The  blaze  illumined  all  the  bay,  with  the  town  and  the  envi- 
rons ;  the  view  of  which  was  really  most  awful  and  beauti-» 
fuJ  J  nine  frigates  and  a  great  number  of  gunboats,  with  other 


THE  tlEGENCY  OF  ALGIERS.  251 


vfessels,  being  all  in  flames,  and  carried  by  the  wind  in  dif- 
ferent directions.'"* 

Next  morning  the  British  admiral  renewed  the  offer  of 
peace,  when  the  terms  originally  proposed  were  readily  ac- 
cepted. By  virtue  of  this  treaty,  1,2 11  slaves  were  released, 
in  addition  to  about  1,800  liberated  during  the  former  expe- 
dition to  the  coast  of  Barbary.  The  dey,  whose  obstinacy 
occasioned  this  great  loss  of  life  and  property,  did  not  long 
survive  the  negotiation,  in  which  he  was  compelled  to  sur- 
render nearly  all  that  the  Algerines  had  been  accustomed  to 
value.  He  was  taken  from  his  throne,  and  precipitated  from 
one  of  the  windows  of  the  palace  into  the  courtyard,  where, 
according  to  custom,  he  was  immediately  despatched. 

The  castigation  inflicted  by  Lord  Exmouth,  severe  as  it 
was,  did  not  long  restrain  the  freebooters  within  the  bounds 
of  moderation.  No  effort  was  spared  to  place  the  city  in  a 
more  formidable  state  of  defence  than  ever ;  and  they  soon 
considered  themselves  again  in  a  condition  to  set  even  the 
great  powers  at  defiance.  The  trade  of  the  French  was  first 
interrupted  ;  and  when  their  consul  ventured  to  remonstrate 
on  the  subject,  he  was  answered  by  reproaches  and  the  most 
galling  insults.  Charles  X.  then  declared  war,  and  sent  a 
number  of  ships  against  Algiers  ;  but  the  fortifications  on  the 
seaside  were  found  so  strong  that  his  admiral  was  obliged  to 
confine  himself  to  an  ineffectual  blockade.  At  length  it 
was  resolved  to  adopt  more  energetic  measures  ;  and  a  large 
fleet  under  Duperre,  with  a  land-force  amounting  to  upward 
of  30,000  men,  under  General  Bourmont,  sailed  from  Mar- 
seilles in  May,  1830.  On  the  14th  June*  the  troops  began  to 
debark  in  the  bay  of  Torre  Chica,  and  were  only  partially 
interrupted  by  a  few  lighthorse  who  approached  the  beach, 
and  by  the  fire  of  some  batteries  erected  m  the  neighbourhood. 
It  should  seem  that  the  Turks,  confident  in  their  numbers  or 
the  strength  of  their  position,  allowed  the  invaders  to  land, 
and  even  to  carry  ashore  their  artiUery,  provisions,  and  stores. 
Five  days  elapsed  before  they  took  the  field  against  Bour- 
mont, having  perhaps  spent  the  interval  in  assembling  the 
various  contingents  from  Oran,  Constantina,  and  Titteri. 
On  the  19lh  they  commenced  an  attack  on  the  French,  with 
a  force  estimated  at  50,000,  chiefly  horsemen,  who  charged 


Salame,  Expedition  to  Algiers,  p.  37,  &c. 


252 


THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS. 


with  such  impetMOsity,  that  they  penetrated  the  enemy's  Une 
at  several  points  ;  nor  was  it  until  after  a  very  obstinate  con- 
flict that  they  began  their  retreat,  which,  as  usual,  ended  in 
a  complete  rout. 

But,  though  repulsed,  they  had  no  intention  to  abandon 
their  country  to  the  Christians  without  a  farther  struggle. 
They  accordingly  renewed  their  assault  upon  the  French 
camp,  day  after  day,  until  some  severe  checks,  and  a  convic- 
tion of  their  inferiority  as  soldiers,  compelled  them  to  fall 
back  towards  the  Desert.  Bourmont  now  advanced  to  the 
city,  which,  after  a  smart  bombardment,  yielded  at  discretion. 
Twelve  ships  of  war,  1,500  brass  cannon,  with  a  large  sum  of 
money,  came  into  the  hands  of  the  cunquerors  ;  and  on  the 
5th  of  July,  their  flag  waved  on  all  the  forts.  The  Turkish 
troops  were  permitted  to  go  wherever  they  pleased,  provided 
they  should  leave  Algiers  ;  most  of  whom  desired  to  be  land- 
ed in  Asia  Minor.  The  dey,  in  the  first  instance,  chose  Na- 
ples for  the  place  of  his  retirement  ;  and,  it  is  well  known, 
he  enjoyed  repose,  and  even  some  degree  of  consideration, 
till  the  day  of  his  death. 

The  success  of  this  bold  measure  has,  in  the  meantime, 
reheved  the  Mediterranean  from  the  dread  of  piracy,  and  the 
European  shores  from  the  horrors  which  always  accompanied 
the  inroads  of  the  merciless  Moors.  But  it  must  be  doubt- 
ful whether  the  conquest,  in  any  other  respect,  will  gratify  the 
nation  whose  arms  achieved  it.  The  climate  is  indeed  good, 
the  soil  rich,  and  the  situation  at  once  romantic  and  delight- 
ful;  but  the  inhabitants  of  the  adjacent  country  are  destitute 
of  honour,  regardless  of  treaties,  strangers  to  the  refined  en- 
joyments of  social  life,  addicted  to  plunder,  and  accustomed 
to  consider  war  as  their  profession.  M.  Rozet  acknowledges, 
that  in  their  hostilities  with  the  Bedouins,  the  regular  troops 
of  France,  so  far  from  gaining  any  ultimate  advantage,  must 
be  content  with  a  temporary  triumph  ;  for,  as  soon  as  the 
Arab  horsemen  attain  the  border  of  the  Sahara,  they  can  set 
at  defiance  the  best  hussars  of  Europe.  Hence  we  cannot 
be  surprised  to  learn,  that  the  conquerors  of  Algiers  are  con- 
fined to  the  walls  of  most  of  the  towns  which  they  occupy ; 
that  they  cannot  venture  to  take  possession  of  the  lands;  and 
that  the  hope  of  a  prosperous  colonization  of  Northern  Af- 
rica becomes  daily  less  encouraging.  The  great  expense, 
XDoreover,  incident  to  the  military  estabhshment  still  neces- 


THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS.  253 


sary  for  the  primary  object  of  the  expedition,  presses  upon 
the  government  of  Louis  Philippe,  who,  it  would  appear,  has 
ahready  listened  to  several  proposals  for  withdrawing  his 
troops. 

The  actual  state  of  Algiers  is  well  illustrated  by  the  offi- 
cer just  named,  who  made  part  of  the  expedition,  and  after- 
ward resided  sixteen  months  in  the  regency.  His  account 
of  the  town,  both  as  to  its  external  appearance  and  its  inte- 
rior arrangements,  agrees  in  substance  with  those  already 
given  ;  confirming,  in  every  particular,  the  striking  contrast 
between  the  view  obtained  of  it  from  the  sea,  and  the  entire 
want  iJi  arcniter-tural  ornament  and  even  of  convenience 
within.  The  brilliant  aspect  which  it  exhibits  at  a  distance, 
with  its  whitewashed  roofs,  reminded  him  of  an  open  chalk- 
quarry  on  the  side  of  a  hill ;  but  when  he  entered  the  gates, 
he  found  that  the  breadth  of  its  mam  street  did  not  exceed 
nine  feet,  one  half  of  which  was  occupied  by  the  projection 
of  the  houses.  This  alley  opens  into  another  called  Bab  el 
Ouad,  which  penetrates  the  whole  length  of  the  city  from 
south  to  north,  and  is  in  some  places  so  narrow  that  a  loaded 
mule  fills  it  from  side  to  side.  It  is,  however,  remarkable 
for  one  of  those  fountains  or  public  wells  which  are  seen  in 
every  lane  of  Algiers,  and  prove  the  source  of  much  comfort 
as  well  as  health  to  the  inhabitants.  The  following  cut  af- 
fords a  good  representation  of  the  one  which  adorns  the  street 
we  are  no  v  describing.* 

From  the  same  account,  ',ve  find  that  the  strength  of  the 
Mole-Battery  has  not  been  overrated  by  former  writers. 
When  thp  French  entered  the  bay,  they  observed  on  thai  for- 
tification alone  not  fe'vei  than  237  pieces  of  cannon,  forming 
five  tiers,  one  above  another,  the  first  of  which  carried  guns 
varying  from  thirty-six  to  ninety- six  pounders.  They  were 
placed  in  vaulted  casements,  bomb-proof,  the  walls  of  which, 
constructed  of  hewn  stone,  were  about  ten  feet  thick. 

Speaking  of  Algiers  as  it  was  before  the  reduction  of  it  by 
General  Bourmont,  we  may  remark  that  the  government  was 

*  "  Dans  chaque  rue  on  trouve  plusieurs  fontaines  alimen- 
tees  par  des  aqueducs  :  ses  fontaines  sont  formees  par  un  en- 
foncement  dans  le  mur,  que  termine  un  cintre  ou  une  ogive 
composee  de  la  reunion  de  deux  arcs  de  cercle,  et  toujours  or- 
ndes  de  desseixis  arabesque  parfaitement  sculptes," — Rozet,  vol. 
iii.,  p.  17. 


254  THE   REGENcr  OF  ALGIERS. 


Gate  and  Fountain  of  Bab  el  Ouad. 
entirely  despotic,  and  that  the  dey  had  the  power  of  Hfe  and 
death  over  all  his  subjscts.  There  was  no  law  but  his  own 
will,  and  this  was  executed  wiih  an  astonishing  degree  of 
promptitude.  In  the  year  1830,  when  the  soldiers  of  Charles 
X.  drove  from  his  throne  this  deputy  of  the  grand  seignior, 
they  discov-ered  that  the  whole  authority  of  the  state  was  in 
his  hands  ;  that  he  rewarded  c.»id  punished  at  his  discretion  ; 
disposed  of  all  employments  ;  and  made  peace  or  proclaimed 
war  without  being  obliged  to  give  an  account  of  his  conduct 
to  any  one.  He  had  nothing  to  fe£.r  but  the  sanguinary  re- 
volts of  his  janizaries,  who,  when  they  chose  to  become  dis- 
satisfied with  their  sovereign,  flew  to  arms,  surrounded  his 
palace,  put  him  to  death,  and  nominated  his  successor  from 
their  own  ranks. 


THE   REGENCY   OF  ALGIERS.  255 


We  have  already  suggested  that  the  regency  was  divided 
into  four  provinces,  three  of  which  were  immediately  gov- 
€rned  by  beys,  namely,  Constantina,  Titteri,  and  Oran. 
Each  of  these  local  rulers  had  a  guard,  consisting  of  a  few 
hundreds  of  Turkish  soldiers,  who  had  their  headquarters  in 
his  capital,  and  accompairied  him  in  all  his  expeditions. 

As  the  admmistration  had  long  assumed  a  military  char- 
acter, every  man,  on  certain  emergencies,  was  bound  to  be  a 
soldier  ;  but  the  Ottoman  militia,  or  janizaries,  formed  the 
regular  army,  to  whom  was  added  a  corps  of  koulouglis — the 
oflfspring  of  Turks  and  Christian  slaves — into  which  were 
sometimes  admitted  a  contingent  of  Moors.  This  mihtia  has 
oy  some  authors  been  rated  as  high  as  15,000,  by  others 
at  8,000  ;  but  Rozet  remarks,  that  when  the  French  took  Al- 
giers, they  found  not  more  than  from  2,000  to  3,000  capable 
of  bearing  arms.  The  cavalry,  the  strength  of  which  varied 
according  to  circumstances,  was  composed  of  Berbers  and 
Arabs,  to  whom  were  granted  certain  advantages,  in  order 
to  secure  a  continuance  of  their  services.  It  is  allowed  by 
the  staff-officer,  on  whose  authority  we  now  proceed,  that 
the  Turks  were  brave  and  generous  m  battle  ;  and  that,  after 
victory,  they  never  put  their  hands  to  plunder,  but  left  the 
spoils  of  the  field  to  be  gathered  by  the  Moors  and  their 
slaves.* 

The  navy  of  the  dey,  although  the  terror  of  Europe,  was 
at  no  time  very  considerable.  The  French  found  only  one 
large  frigate  on  the  stocks,  two-in  the  harbour,  two  corvettes, 
eight  or  ten  brigs,  and  about  thirty-two  armed  sloops.  For 
some  years  the  whole  marine  had  belonged  to  his  highness, 
the  privilege  of  arming  on  their  own  account  having  been 
withdrawn  from  private  individuals,  except  in  the  case  of  very 
small  vessels,  which  were  permitted  to  carry  on  a  coasting- 
trade  and  use  weapons  for  their  own  defence. 

The  revenue  of  Algiers,  if  restricted  to"the  usual  resources 
of  the  country,  did  not  exceed  130,000/.  When  General 
Bourmont  took  possession  of  the  dey's  palace,  certain  rec- 
ords were  discovered,  which  enabled  M.  Gerardin,  appointed 
'*  director  of  the  domains,"  and  M.  Fougeron,  inspector  of 
finances,  to  ascertain  the  precise  sum  which  each  province  or 
government  contributed  to  the  expenses  of  the  state.  Oran 

*  Voyage  dans  la  Regence  d' Alger,  vol.  ili.,  p.  367., 


\ 


256 


THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS. 


and  Constantina  paid  1,401,213  francs  annually,  and  it  is  sup- 
posed that  the  receipts  from  the  other  districts  might  increase 
the  sum  to  three  millions — a  small  return  from  a  country 
500  or  600  miles  in  length,  and  150  in  breadth.  To  these 
regular  funds,  however,  must  be  added  the  occasional  pay- 
ments made  by  foreign  crowns,  the  value  of  the  numerous 
prizes  taken  by  the  corsairs,  and  the  presents  offered  by  a 
variety  of  functionaries  which  had  long  ceased  to  be  voluntary. 
Still  it  cannot  fail  to  appear  surprising,  that  the  treasury  of 
the  dey  should  have  contained,  when  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  captors,  not  less  than  fifty  millions  of  francs  in  gold  and 
silver.  Considering  the  immense  fortifications  which  he 
erected,  not  only  at  the  capital,  but  along  a  coast  of  more 
than  thirty  miles  in  extent,  we  naturally  come  to  the  conclu- 
sion formed  by  M.  Rozet,  that  piracy  must  have  furnished  to 
him  larger  sums  than  he  drew  from  all  the  lands  under  his 
acknowledged  sway.* 

The  wars  which  have  been  occasionally  waged  between 
Algiers  and  Tunis,  do  not  reflect  much  honour  either  upon 
the  courage  or  fidelity  of  the  native  troops.  In  the  spring 
of  the  year  1807,  the  armies  of  these  neighbouring  states,  to 
decide  some  national  quarrel,  took  the  field,  amounting  on 
either  side  to  about  30,000  men.  The  Tunisians,  who  advan- 
ced towards  the  west  with  the  view  of  reducing  Constantina, 
were,  upon  the  first  appearance  of  their  enemies,  seized  with 
a  sudden  panic,  and  fled  with  such  precipitation  that  the  Al- 
gerines,  without  trouble  or  danger,  took  entire  possession  of 
their  camp,  baggage,  and  15,000  camels  laden  with  provis- 
ions. Many  of  the  fugitives  reached  their  capital  without 
once  stopping  or  daring  to  look  back  ;  and  numerous  horse- 
men rode  their  animals  with  such  speed,  that  they  fell  down 
dead  under  them. 

In  a  few  months  the  bey  was  ready  to  renew  the  campaign, 
eager  to  recover  the  reputation  he  had  lost,  and  to  accomplish 
the  important  object  which  had  called  him  to  arms.  But  his 
followers  had  not  in  the  interval  acquired  any  higher  miUtary 
qualities,  nor  greater  confidence  in  their  own  prowess.  A  wa- 
tering-party, who  happened  to  come  in  sight  of  a  detachment 
from  the  opposite  camp,  fell  back  in  such  confusion  that  they 
carried  terror  into  the  main  body,  who,  in  theii  turn,  prepared 


*  Rozet,  vol.  iii.,  p.  387. 


THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS.  257 


for  flight.  The  cavalry  were  already  off,  and  the  infantry 
>?v'ere  about  to  imitate  their  example,  while  the  commanding 
officer,  enveloped  in  a  cloud  of  sand,  knew  not  whether  the 
masses  of  troops  which  moved  around  him  in  all  directions 
were  friends  or  foes.  A  Greek  slave,  who  had  charge  of  the 
artillery,  perceived  in  the  confusion  that  the  Algerines  were 
advancing  to  complete  their  destruction  ;  upon  which,  with- 
out any  orders,  he  applied  a  match  to  one  of  the  pieces  point- 
ed against  the  suspected  squadrons,  aud  killed  the  horse  of  a 
chief.  The  assailants,  terrified  at  this  accident,  turned  their 
backs  and  galloped  towards  their  tents — a  movement  which 
the  Tunisian  cavalry  no  sooner  observed,  than  they  recovered 
from  their  fears  and  began  a  vigorous  pursuit. 

The  following  morning  both  armies  assumed  their  weap- 
ons, and  formed  themselves  in  line  of  battle  on  the  opposite 
banks  of  a  small  river  ;  and  now,  a  kind  of  irregular  fight 
commenced,  which  continued  till  sunset  without  any  serious 
injury  being  sustained  on  either  side.  When  the  shades  of 
evening  began  to  thicken,  the  Algerines  fired  a  cannon  with- 
out ball — a  signal  perfectly  understood  among  these  heroes, 
that  they  were  willing  to  suspend  the  strife  till  next  day. 
Both  paused,  in  the  most  accommodating  manner,  and  made 
instant  arrangements  for  food  and  repose  ;  but  the  sentries 
who  watched  the  camp  of  the  dey,  observing  on  the  neigh- 
bouring hills  a  detachment  of  cavalry,  gave  the  alarm  to  their 
companions,  and  in  an  instant  terror  and  confusion  spread 
through  their  lines.  The  warriors  of  Algiers,  who  had  gained 
so  many  laurels  in  the  month  of  March,  consented  to  lose 
them  all  in  July.  They  fled  with  precipitation  during  the 
night,  leaving  to  the  unconscious  victors  the  whole  of  their 
stores,  provisions,  and  camels,  together  with  twenty  field- 
pieces  and  four  mortars.  Contented  with  their  acquisitions, 
so  ezLsily  attained,  the  soldiers  of  the  bey  deemed  it  inexpe- 
dient to  hazard  their  riches  and  renown  by  advancing  upon 
Constantina,  although  the  gatjes  of  that  town  were  already 
thrown  open  to  them.  They  more  prudently  resolved  to  re- 
turn to  Tunis,  where,  amid  the  acclamations  of  the  citizens, 
they  might  enjoy  the  fruits  of  their  valour,  and  cultivate  all 
the  warlike  virtues.  It  will  not  excite  wonder,  that  in  these 
engagements  very  few  men  were  killed,  wounded,  or  taken 
prisoners  ;  for  the  combatants  were  drawn  out  to  menace 
each  other  rather  than  to  fight ;  while  the  distance  at  which 


258  THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS. 


they  used  their  arms  rendered  their  encounter  comparatively 
harmless.* 

It  would  afford  neither  entertainment  nor  instruction,  were 
we  to  narrate  the  unimportant  events  which  have  occasionally- 
arisen  from  the  mutual  jealousy  of  these  states,  and  from 
the  repeated  attempts  made  by  successive  deys  to  acquire  an 
ascendency  over  Tunis.  We  shall  therefore  proceed  to 
describe  the  chief  cities  in  the  several  provinces  of  Algiers, 
beginning  with  the  government  of  Constantina. 

Entering  this  territory  from  the  east,  our  attention  is  first 
drawn  to  Bona,  the  Hippo  Regius  of  the  Romans,  and  the 
episcopal  see  of  the  celebrated  Augustine.  Tlie  modern 
town  is  about  a  mile  nearer  the  shore  than  the  ancient  one, 
and  stands  on  ground  which  appears  to  have  been  once 
covered  by  the  waves.  The  ruins  of  the  latter  are  spread 
over  a  neck  of  land  which  lies  between  two  rivers,  about  a 
mile  and  a  half  in  circuit,  and  presenting  the  usual  features 
of  broken  walls  and  cisterns.  It  had  the  epithet  of  Regius 
attached  to  it,  not  only  to  distinguish  it  from  Hippo  Zaritus, 
but  from  its  being  one  of  the  royal  residences  of  the  Numid- 
ian  kings.  Dr.  Shaw  relates,  that  a  large  quantity  of  corn, 
wool,  hides,  and  wax,  is  every  year  shipped  off  from  this 
place,  which,  by  proper  care  and  encouragement,  might  be 
made  the  most  flourishing  city  in  Barbary  ;  while  by  remo- 
ving the  rubbish,  repairing  the  old  buildings,  and  introducing 
a  supply  of  water,  it  would  certainly  be  rendered  one  of  the 
most  convenient  and  delightful. 

We  have  passed  by  Tabarca,  the  ancient  Thabraca, 
because  it  presents  nothing  of  which  the  description  could 
interest  the  reader.  Between  this  position  and  Bona  is  the 
s.ettlement  of  La  Cala,  where,  as  already  noticed,  the  French 
had  a  large  coral-fishery  and  a  regular  fort.  The  town, 
which  bears  the  same  name,  is  walled  round,  and  has  three 
gates  ;  the  main  street,  which  is  well  paved,  divides  the 
peninsula  longitudinally,  and  is  about  sixty  feet  wide.  The 
buildings  on  each  side  consist  of  a  church,  a  governor's 
house,  private  dwellings,  granaries,  guardhouse,  and  barracks. 
When  France  possessed  it,  the  garrison  usually  amounted  to 
600  men.    In  1806,  the  British  government  contracted  with 

*  Account  of  Tunis,  p.  45.  See  also  Pananti's  Narrative,  p. 
335,  &c. 


THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS. 


259 


the  Dey  of  Algiers  for  the  occupation  of  La  Gala,  Bona,  and 
Cool,  stipulating  to  pay  the  annual  sum  of  50,000  dollars ; 
it  being  supposed  that  the  coral-lishery  alone  would  reim- 
burse a  great  proportion  of  the  yearly  expenditure.  The 
violation  of  this  treaty  by  his  highness,  and  the  massacre  of 
the  fishermen,  led,  as  we  have  already  noticed,  to  the  bom- 
bardment of  his  capital  under  the  direction  of  Lord  Exmouth. 
At  the  present  moment,  this  part  of  the  coast  is  subject  to 
the  military  authorities  who  represent  Louis  Philippe  in 
JVorthern  Africa. 

Constantina,  the  ancient  Cirta,  is  the  principal  city  in  the 
eastern  province,  and  still  attests  by  its  rums  its  former 
gfreatness.  It  is  said  to  stand  thirty  leagues  south  from 
Bona,  occupying  a  high  hill,  or  what  Shaw  rather  enigmati- 
cally calls  a  peninsular  promontory.  The  visiter  enters  from 
the  north  over  a  stupendous  Roman  bridge,  having  three 
rows  of  lofty  arches  ;  and  when  inside  the  town,  he  is  every- 
where struck  with  relics  of  ancient  splendour.  Granite  pil- 
lars, broken  friezes,  pedestals,  and  a  variety  of  Greek,  Latin, 
and  Runic  inscriptions,  are  frequently  observed.  Besides 
the  general  traces  of  ruins  scattered  all  over  this  place,  there 
are  still  remaining  near  the  centre  of  the  city  those  capa- 
cious cisterns  which  received  the  water  brought  from  Phys- 
geah  by  an  aqueduct — a  great  part  of  which  continues  en- 
tire, and  "  is  very  sumptuous."  There  is  a  gate  of  a  beauti- 
ful reddish  stone,  not  inferior  to  marble  well  pohshed  ;  the 
side-pillars  being  neatly  moulded  in  panels.  An  altar  of 
purely  white  marble  makes  part  of  a  neighbouring  wall ;  the 
only  side  of  it  in  view  presenting  a  well-shaped  chalice  in 
bold  relief.  The  gate  towards  the  southeast  is  in  the  same 
fashion  and  design,  though  much  smaller,  and  lies  open  to  a 
bridge  that  was  built  over  this  part  of  the  valley.  This,  in- 
deed, was  a  masterpiece  in  its  kind  ;  the  gallery,  and  the 
columns  of  the  arches,  being  adorned  with  cornices  and  fes- 
toons, ox-heads  and  garlands.  The  keystones,  likewise,  of 
the  arches,  are  covered  with  sculptured  ornaments.  Below 
the  gallery,  between  the  two  principal  arches,  is  the  figure 
of  a  lady  treading  on  two  elephants,  well  executed  in  high 
relief.  Among  the  ruins,  to  the  southwest  of  the  bridge, 
remains  the  greater  part  of  a  triumphal  arch,  called  Cassir 
Gowlah,  the  Castle  of  the  Giant,  consisting  of  three  arches. 
All  the  mouldings  and  friezes  are  curiously  embellished  with 


260  THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS. 


the  figures  of  flowers,  battleaxes,  and  other  devices.  The 
Corinthian  pilasters,  on  each  side  of  the  g;and  arch,  are 
panelled  like  the  gates  of  the  city,  in  a  style  pecuUar  to 
Cirta.  The  population  of  this  interesting  place  is  said  to 
amount  to  not  less  than  30,000  Moors,  Jews,  and  Turks. 

About  twenty  miles  to  the  northwest  of  Constantina  stands 
Mileu,  the  Milevum  of  the  ancients,  in  the  centre  of  a  most 
beautiful  group  of  hills  and  valleys.  It  is  surrounded  with 
gardens,  and  plentifully  stocked  with  fountains  ;  one  of  which, 
bubbling  up  in  the  middle  of  the  town,  is  received  into  a 
large  square  basin  of  Roman  workmanship.  From  this  fer- 
tile district  the  capital  is  chiefly  supplied  with  herbs  and 
fruits,  which  are  accounted  excellent :  the  pomegranates,  in 
particular,  are  of  so  large  a  size,  and  have  so  delicate  a 
flavour,  that  they  are  in  great  request  all  over  the  kingdom. 

The  whole  of  this  province  still  retains  the  most  satis- 
factory tokens  that  it  was  long  occupied  by  the  Romans. 
Remarkable  ruins  may  still  be  seen  at  Tezzoute,  the  Lam- 
besa  of  classical  authors,  which  cover  an  area  nearly  three 
leagues  in  circumference.  Besides  the  magnificent  frag- 
ments of  the  city  gates,  the  number  of  which,  according  to 
the  tradition  of  the  Arabs,  was  not  less  than  forty,  there  are 
the  seats  and  upper  part  of  an  amphitheatre  ;  the  front  of  a 
beautiful  Ionic  temple  dedicated  to  Esculapius ;  a  large  ob- 
long chamber  with  a  great  door  on  each  side  of  it,  intended, 
perhaps,  for  a  triumphal  arch  ;  and  the  Cupola  of  the  Bride, 
as  the  natives  denominate  a  very  handsome,  though  small 
mausoleum,  built  in  the  fashion  of  a  dome,  supported  by 
Corinthian  pillars.  "  These,"  says  Dr.  Shaw,  *'  and  several 
other  edifices  of  the  hke  elegant  "structure,  sufficiently  de- 
monstrate the  importance  and  magnificence  of  this  city."* 

Proceeding  westward  we  come  to  Bujeya,  or  Boojeiah, 
called  by  Strabo  the  port  of  Salda,  which  stands  upon  a 
neck  of  land  running  out  into  the  sea.  It  is  built  upon  the 
ruins  of  a  large  city,  and  displays  the  remains  of  extensive 
walls,  basins,  and  aqueducts,  most  of  which,  however,  have 
suffered  from  the  ravages  of  war.  At  present,  besides  the 
castle  on  the  summit  of  a  hill  which  commands  the  whole 
town,  there  are  two  forts  at  the  bottom  of  it,  erected  for  the 
security  of  the  harbour ;  where  several  breaches  may  still  be 

*  Travels  in  Barbary,  vol.  i.,  p.  126. 


THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS. 


261 


observed  in  the  bastions,  made  by  the  balls  fired  against  them 
by  Sir  Edward  Spragge,  who  attacked  it  in  the  year  1671. 

Having  mentioned  the  principal  places  in  the  government 
of  Constantina,  we  shall  advert  very  briefly  to  those  of 
Titteri.  In  the  days  of  Dr.  Shaw,  this  province  was  con- 
sidered as  being  comprehended  in  the  territory  of  Algiers, 
having  for  its  capital  the  metropolis  of  the  kingdom  ;  and, 
even  in  our  times,  its  small  extent  seems  not  to  entitle  it  to 
the  honour  of  a  separate  jurisdiction.  Bleeda  and  Medea, 
the  only  cities  of  this  district,  are  each  of  them  about  a  mile 
in  circuit ;  but  their  walls,  which  are  chiefly  composed  of 
mud,  and  perforated  everywhere  with  hornets,  cannot  be  said 
io  contribute  either  to  their  strength  or  beauty.  The  houses 
are  in  general  flat-roofed,  though  some  of  them  are  tiled, 
but  have  hardly  any  other  accommodation  to  recommend 
them  as  permanent  residences  than  an  abundant  supply  of 
water.  A  branch  of  an  adjacent  rivulet  may  be  conducted 
through  every  dwelling  and  garden  at  Bleeda ;  while  at 
Medea,  the  conduits  and  aqueducts  that  supply  it,  some  of 
which  appear  to  be  of  Roman  workmanship,  are  capable  of 
being  so  extended  as  to  prove  equally  commodious. 

That  part  of  the  Atlas  which  lies  between  these  towns, 
and  extends  as  far  as  Mount  Jurjura,  is  inhabited  by  numer- 
ous hordes  of  Kabyles,  few  of  whom,  confiding  in  their 
strong  country,  have  ever  been  tributary  to  the  Algerines. 
The  mountain  just  named  is  the  highest  in  Barbary,  and 
about  tvventy-four  miles  in  length  ;  having  its  summit, 
throughout  the  winter,  covered  deeply  with  snow,  and  pre- 
senting, from  the  one  end  to  the  other,  an  uninterrupted 
range  of  barren  peaks  and  precipices.  About  fifteen  iniles 
southward  from  Medea  is  the  "  Rock  of  Titteri,"  a  re- 
markable ridge,  four  leagues  in  extent,  and,  if  possible,  even 
more  r\igged  than  Jurjura.  Upon  the  top  there  is  a  large 
piece  of  level  ground,  with  only  one  naprow  road  leading  up 
to  it,  where,  for  their  greater  security,  the  tribe  of  Welled 
Eisa  have  their  granaries.  Beyond  them  are  the  encamp- 
ments of  the  sons  of  Innane,  the  principal  Arabs  of  the  dis- 
trict of  Titteri,  properly  so  called,  which  lies  only  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  this  mountain. 

Five  leagues  to  the  eastward  of  the  rock  now  specified  is 
the  Burgh  Hamza  or  Castle  of  Hamza,  built  from  the  ruins 
of  the  ancient  Auzea,  now  called  by  the  Arabs  Sour  Guslan, 


262 


THE  REGENCY   OP  ALGIERS. 


the  "Walls  of  the  Antelopes.  A  great  part  of  the  old  city, 
fortified  at  proper  distances  with  small  square  turrets,  is  still 
remaining  ;  the  whole  of  which,  it  is  conjectured,  could  not 
exceed  six  furlongs  in  circumference.  Of  this  place,  once 
important  as  a  military  station,  Tacitus  has  given  a  very 
good  description  ;  for  it  was  erected  upon  a  small  plat  of 
level  ground,  everywhere  surrounded  with  bare  hills  and 
gloomy  forests,  inspiring  the  mind  of  the  traveller  with  the 
profoundest  melancholy.* 

Advancing  towards  the  Sahara,  we  become  acquainted 
with  the  names  of  various  clans  who  feed  their  flocks  on  its 
borders,  and  of  several  hills  which  define  their  boundaries, 
or  prove  a  landmark  to  their  scattered  dependances.  The 
most  distant,  and  in  some  respects  the  most  savage,  are  the 
Beni  Mezzab,  whose  chief  employment  is  the  slaughter  of 
animals  for  the  markets  of  Algiers.  It  has  been  observed 
of  these  sons  of  Mezzab,  that  they  are  in  general  of  a  more 
swarthy  complexion  than  the  Getulians,  who  dwell  farther  to 
the  north  ;  and,  as  they  are  separated  from  them  by  a  wide 
inhospitable  desert,  they  may  probably  be  found  to  be  a 
branch  of  the  Melano-Getuli,  or  Black  Getulians,  so  little 
known  in  the  modern  systems  of  geography,  t 

The  province  which  divides  Algiers  from  Morocco  bears 
the  name  of  Tlemsan,  the  Moorish  corruption  of  the  ancient 
term  Tremezen,  and  comprehends  several  towns  that,  from 
their  historical  importance  rather  than  their  actual  condition, 
are  not  undeserving  of  a  short  description.  The  capital, 
known  by  the  same  appellation  as  the  surrounding  district, 
stands  upon  a  rising  ground  below  a  range  of  precipices 
stretching  from  the  Atlas  Mountains.  In  the  western  part 
of  the  city  there  is  a  large  basin,  the  work  of  the  natives, 
which  receives  the  numerous  rills  that  trickle  down  from  the 
elevated  land  towards  the  south,  affording  an  ample  supply 
of  water  for  the  beautiful  gardens  and  plantations  in  the 
neighbourhood.  Most  of  the  walls  of  Tlemsan  have  been 
built,  or  rather  moulded,  in  frames — a  method  which  was 

*  Nec  multo  post  adfertur  Numidas  apud  castellum  semiru- 
tum,  ab  ipsis  quondam  incensum,  cui  nomen  Auzea,  positis 
rcapalibus  consedisse  fisos  quia  vastis  circuni  saltibus  claudeba- 
tur. — Tacit.  Annal.,  lib.  iv. 

t  Shaw,  vol,  i.,  p.  99. 


THE   REGENCY   OF   .\LG1ERS.  263 


used  by  the  Africans  and  Spaniards  so  early  as  the  days  of 
Phny.  The  mortar  of  which  they  consist  is  made  up  of 
sand,  hme,  and  gravel,  and  has,  by  being  well  tempered,  ac- 
quired all  the  strength  and  durabiUty  of  stone.  The  dimen- 
sions of  these  frames  can  still  be  determined ;  some  of 
which  must  have  been  100  yards  in  length  and  two  yards  in 
height  and  thickness.  About  the  year  1670,  Hassan,  the 
Dey  of  Algiers,  laid  most  of  this  town  in  ruins,  as  a  jmnish- 
ment  for  the  disaffection  of  the  inhabitants  ;  so  that  there  is 
not  now  remaining  above  one  sixth  of  the  old  metropolis, 
which,  when  entire,  appears  to  have  been  at  least  four  miles 
in  circuit.  In  the  dilapidated  parts  of  the  more  ancient  city 
are  to  be  seen  shafts  of  pillars  and  other  relics  of  Roman 
magnificence  ;  and  Dr.  Shaw  observed  in  the  walls  of  a 
mosque,  constructed  of  the  original  materials,  a  number  of 
altars  dedicated  to  heathen  gods.* 

.  Still  farther  south  are  discovered,  in  a  variety  of  situa- 
tions, the  vestiges  of  Roman  towns  ;  which,  however,  con- 
vey no  information  beyond  the  simple  fact,  that  a  civihzed 
people,  powerful  in  arms,  were  once  masters  of  the  country. 
The  ruins  of  Arbaal,  Memon,  El  Herba,  Maliana,  and  Aquae 
Calidas  Co'r-nia,  forcibly  recall  the  descriptions  of  classical 
authois.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  station  last  named,  are 
several  tombs  and  coffins  of  stone,  containing,  if  the  narra- 
tives of  the  inhabitants  might  be  believed,  skeletons  and 
armour  of  a  much  larger  size  than  could  belong  to  men  of 
modern  times.  The  usages  of  the  Goths  and  Vandals,  who 
not  unfrequently  buried  the  horse  and  the  rider  in  one  grave, 
may  account  for  the  huge  bones  and  long  swords  still  found 
in  that  section  of  Africa,  and  at  the  same  time  illustrate  the 
fine  verses  of  the  poet. 

"  Agricola  incurvo  terram  molitus  aratro, 
Exesa  inveniet  scabra  rubigine  pila  : 
Aut  gravibus  rastris  galeas  pulsabit  inanes, 
Grandiaque  efFossis  mirabitur  ossa  sepulchris." 

ViRG.  Georg.,  lib.i.,  V.  494. 
Then,  after  length  of  time,  the  lab'ring  swains 
Who  turn  the  turfs  of  those  unhappy  plains. 
Shall  rusty  plies  from  the  ploughed  furrows  take, 
And  over  empty  helmets  pass  the  ^ake — 
Amazed  at  antique  titles  on  the  stones, 
And  mighty  r*.  -cs  of  gigantic  bones." — Dryden. 


»  Travels  in  Barbary,  vo!.  i.,  p.  69. 


264 


THE  REGENCY   OF  ALGIERS. 


The  country  around,  possessed  by  various  tribes,  present* 
a  succession  of  exceedingly  rugged  hills  and  deep  valleys, 
very  difficult  and  even  dangerous  to  pass  over.  Yet,  says 
the  best  of  our  travellers,  this  danger  and  fatigue  are  amply 
compensated  by  visiting  the  delightful  plains  of  the  Hadjoute 
and  Metijah,  which  lie  beyond  them  ;  those  of  the  latter 
being  nearly  fifty  miles  long  and  twenty  broad,  and  watered 
in  every  part  by  numerous  springs  and  rivulets.* 

Ascending  to  the  coast,  and  turning  towards  Algiers,  we 
arrive  at  the  celebrated  town  of  Oran,  the  possession  of 
which  was  so  long  contested  between  the  Spaniards  and  the 
Moors.  It  is  described  as  being  built  upon  the  declivity,  and 
near  the  foot  of  a  mountain,  which  overlooks  it  from  the 
north  and  west.  On  the  high  ground  are  two  castles,  which 
command  the  city  on  the  one  side,  and  the  Marsa-Kebir  on 
the  other  ;  while,  on  a  lower  level,  are  two  forts,  separated 
from  the  houses  by  a  deep  winding  valley,  which  serves  as  a 
natural  trench  on  the  south.  Hence  it  is  manifest  that  this 
seaport  is  capable  of  an  easy  defence,  and  might  be  held  by 
a  small  European  garrison  in  spite  of  the  utmost  exertions 
of  the  natives. 

This  description,  given  on  the  authority  of  Shaw,  is  con- 
firmed by  the  details  of  M.  Rozet,  who  spent  some  time  at 
Oran  after  the  conquest  of  Algiers.  The  town,  according  to 
him,  occupies  two  elongated  platforms,  separated  from  each 
other  by  a  steep  valley,  in  which  runs  a  stream  sufficiently 
strong  to  turn  several  mills,  and  to  supply  the  inhabitants 
with  abundance  of  water.  The  annexed  view,  taken  by  him 
on  the  spot,  will  assist  the  imagination  of  the  reader  in  form- 
ing an  idea  of  this  remarkable  station. 

When  the  French  army  advanced  to  take  possession  of 
Oran,  all  the  occupants  of  the  town,  wuth  the  exception  of 
300  or  400,  saved  themselves  by  flight,  carrying  with  them 
their  property,  wives,  and  children.  The  Jews  alone  re- 
mained, and  have  proved  faithful  to  their  new  masters  ; 
showing,  on  various  occasions,  not  less  attachment  to  their 
cause  than  military  talent  in  defending  it.  Rozet  conjectures 
that  the  population,  before  this  dispersion,  must  have  amount- 
ed to  between  5,000  and  6,000,  consisting  of  Moors,  Arabs, 
Negroes,  Turks,  Jews,  and  Koulouglis,  whose  habits,  he 


*■  Shaw,  vol.  i.,p,  81. 


TttE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS.  207 


found,  differed  little  from  those  of  the  same  classes  in  Al- 
giers. Before  this  intelligent  officer  left  the  place,  many  of 
the  Mohammedans  had  returned  to  resume  their  occupa- 
tions, while  the  peasantry,  finding  protection  and  encourage- 
ment, were  again  venturing  to  market  with  their  corn,  butter, 
poultry,  and  eggs.  The  inhabitants  appeared,  in  his  eyes,  to 
deserve  the  reputation  of  courage  ;  and  having  been  allowed 
to  retain  their  arms,  they  never  laid  them  aside,  however 
they  might  happen  to  be  employed.  The  dealers  in  the  shops 
had  muskets  by  their  sides  ;  and  the  waiters  in  coffee-houses 
had  a  dagger  or  a  pair  of  pistols  suspended  to  their  girdles. 
But,  he  adds,  they  never  used  them  against  the  French.* 

The  Spaniards,  during  the  first  time  they  were  in  posses- 
sion of  this  place,  built  several  beautiful  churches  and  large 
edifices  in  the  style  of  the  Romans ;  carrying  their  imitation  so 
far  as  to  carve  upon  the  friezes  and  other  convenient  parts  a 
variety  of  inscriptions  in  their  own  language.  But  neither  at 
Oran  nor  Geeza,  a  small  village  about  two  miles  distant  from 
it,  are  there  any  antiquities,  properly  so  called  ;  the  adjoining 
country  having  often  changed  masters,  suffered  much  from 
war,  and  been  long  in  the  hands  of  Europeans,  who  have  re- 
modelled all  its  structures. 

Leaving  the  village  of  Carastel  and  the  port  of  Anze,  the 
traveller  in  Barbary  comes  to  Mostagan,  a  town  separated 
from  the  plain  by  a  circle  of  hills,  and  commanding  a  fine 
view  of  the  sea.  It  is  larger  than  Oran,  and  esteemed  next 
to  Tlemsan  in  point  of  wealth  and  consequence.  Between 
Masagran  and  this  city  there  are  numerous  gardens,  orchards, 
and  country-seats,  ranged  in  beautiful  variety  all  along  the 
shore  ;  the  acclivities  behind  not  only  sheltering  them  from 
the  hot  scorching  winds  which  sometimes  blow  in  those  di- 
rections, but  also  abounding  in  fountains  of  water,  which  re- 
fresh and  cherish  vegetation.  The  appearance  of  the  walls 
and  other  portions  of  ancient  architecture,  removes  all  doubt 
that  it  must  have  been  a  Roman  station  of  great  impor- 
tance, probably  the  Cartenna  of  Pliny  and  of  the  geographer 
Ptolemy,  t 

The  next  place  of  note  on  the  coast  is  the  Jol,  or  Julia  Caesa- 

*  Voyage  dans  la  Regence  d' Alger,  tome  iii.,  p.  274.  Eh 
bien !  ils  nc  s'en  sont  jamais  servis  contre  les  Franqais. 
t  Travels  in  Barbary,  vol.  i.,  p.  60,  &c. 


268  THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS. 


rea  of  the  Italian  historians.  The  ruins  upon  which  it 
stood  before  the  earthquake  of  1738,  were  not  inferior  in  ex- 
tent to  those  of  Carthage  ;  and  the  judgment  which  might 
be  thereby  formed  of  its  original  magnificence  was  confirmed 
by  the  sight  of  the  fine  pillars,  capitals,  capacious  cisterns, 
and  beautiful  mosaic  pavements,  that  were  everywhere  re- 
maining. The  river,  now  named  Hashem,  was  conducted, 
thither  through  a  grand  aqueduct,  nearly  equal  in  magnificence 
and  workmanship  to  that  of  Carthage ;  several  portions  of 
which,  scattered  among  the  neighbouring  valleys  towards  the 
southeast,  display,  in  the  height  and  strength  of  the  arches, 
the  most  incontestable  proofs  of  the  grandeur  of  its  design. 

As  this  town  was  destroyed  a  few  years  after  it  was  visited 
by  Dr.  Shaw,  we  sought  with  more  eagerness  in  the  pages 
of  M.  Rozet  for  information  respecting  its  present  state. 
We  can  learn  no  more  than  that  it  stands  upon  a  little  plain 
between  the  shore  and  the  foot  of  the  mountains  ;  that  the 
buildings  are  after  the  Moorish  fashion,  and  exhibit  the  tur- 
rets of  three  or  four  mosques  ;  that  the  sides  of  the  hills  ap- 
pear well  cultivated,  having  rich  fields,  pasture-lands,  and 
gardens  intermixed  ;  and  that  the  creek  which  serves  for  a 
port  is  defended  by  two  batteries  without  guns.  The  aque- 
duct he  saw  only  through  a  telescope,  at  the  distance  of  four 
miles,  but  he  was  satisfied  that  it  must  have  had  a  Roman 
origin.* 

About  thirteen  miles  nearer  Algiers  are  the  ruins  of  Te- 
fessad,  the  Tepasa  of  the  old  geographers,  which  extend 
more  than  half  a  league  along  the  coast.  Both  at  this  place 
and  Shershell  are  several  arches  and  walls  of  brick,  not  com- 
monly seen  in  other  parts  of  Barbary  ;  and  on  a  large  pan- 
elled stone  found  there  is  the  following  inscription,  which 
carries  its  date  beyond  the  Mohammedan  conquest : — 

C.  Critico  C.  F. 
QuiRiT.  Felici. 
Ex  Testamento  Ejus. 

From  this  point  to  the  capital,  the  breadth  of  the  coast, 
generally  speaking,  is  seven  or  eight  miles,  and  is  either 
mountainous  or  woody ;  thereby  securing  the  fine  plains 
which  lie  behind  it  from  the  northerly  winds  and  the  spray  of 

«  Voyage,  &c.,  tome  iii.,  p.  258. 


THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS.  271 

the  sea,  both  of  which  prove  extremely  unfavourable  to  the 
more  delicate  fruits  of  the  earth.  Crossing  the  Massafran, 
we  find  ourselves  again  within  the  territory  of  Algiers,  the 
vicinity  of  which,  though  pleasant  and  interesting,  does  not 
admit  of  such  a  description  as  would  prove  suitable  to  our 
pages.  The  recent  works  of  French  authors  abound  with 
details,  than  which  nothing  could  be  rnore  useful  to  those 
who  intend  to  live  in  the  country,  or  to  estimate  the  chances 
of  a  profitable  commerce  ;  but,  as  they  are  necessarily  mr- 
nute,  they  would  require  an  extent  of  space  quite  inconsistent 
with  our  object,  and  might  be  found  rather  embarrassing  to 
the  imagination  than  calculated  to  enlighten  the  understand- 
ing. We  may  remark,  however,  that  M.  Rozet,  in  visiting 
the  garden  of  Mustapha  Pacha,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
city,  observed  a  superb  aqueduct  carried  across  a  parched 
valley,  and  constructed  for  the  purpose  of  conveying  water  to 
the  inhabitants  of  the  town.  The  architecture  is  decidedly 
Moorish,  presenting  two  tiers  of  arches  and  other  peculiar- 
ities which  correspond  to  the  taste  of  the  country  ;  but  the 
foregoing  cut  delineates  the  structure  so  distinctly  as  to  pre- 
clude the  necessity  of  farther  description. 

In  a  periodical  published  at  Paris,  entitled  "  Annuaire  de 
I'Etat  d'Alger,"  which  corresponds  to  our  almanacs,  there  is 
an  interesting  account  of  the  country  under  the  French  gov- 
ernment, including  a  view  of  all  the  institutions — civil,  ec- 
clesiastical, commercial,  and  military — by  means  of  which 
its  affairs  are  transacted.  The  author,  by  dividing  the 
BOuthern  district  into  Titteri  and  the  Zaab,  increases  the 
number  of  provinces  to  five  ;  admitting  that  his  countrymen 
occupy  only  three  points  on  the  coast — Algiers,  Oran,  and 
Bona — the  first  of  which  commands  a  territory  of  about 
nine  miles  in  extent,  while  the  two  latter  are  confined  to 
their  respective  walls.  The  Moors  and  Arabs,  we  are  as- 
sured, are  sufficiently  disposed  to  submit  to  the  government 
of  France,  because  they  feel  the  want  of  being  protected 
against  the  inhabitants  of  the  mountains.  He  therefore  rec- 
ommends that  garrisons  should  be  placed  in  all  the  sea- 
ports ;  encouragement  given  to  such  companies  as  would 
undertake  the  working  of  mines  ;  that  a  regular  intercourse 
should  be  kept  up  with  Europe  by  the  intervention  of  steam- 
boats ;  and,  above  all,  that  the  laws  should  be  administered 
with  vigour  and  impartiaUty.    An  attempt  at  colonization  has 


272  THE  REGENCY  OP  ALGIERS. 


been  made  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Algiers,  and  two  vil- 
lages have  been  established  at  Kouba  and  Dely -Ibrahim, 
under  the  immediate  auspices  of  the  ruling  authority.  The 
inhabitants,  who  have  been  hitherto  supported  by  the  state, 
have  received  a  species  of  civic  organization,  and  present  at 
least  a  model  of  the  improved  condition  to  which  the  whole 
region  may  yet  attain. 

The  climate  is  much  more  constant  than  that  of  France  ; 
not  being  exposed  to  those  sudden  changes  of  temperature 
which  render  the  latter  so  variable.  \\Tien  the  warm  season 
sets  in,  the  heat  continues  to  increase  without  interruption  ; 
and,  at  the  end  of  summer,  it  diminishes  in  the  same  gradual 
manner.  This  favourable  state  of  the  atmosphere,  which  is 
enjoyed  in  the  plains  eight  months  of  the  year,  and  the  moder- 
ate warmth  of  the  mountain-districts,  render  Northern  Africa 
fit  for  the  culture  of  a  greater  number  of  vegetables  than  can 
be  raised  in  France  or  any  other  European  country.  In  fact, 
in  the  less-heated  parts,  they  can  rear  the  same  plants  as  are 
cultivated  on  the  opposite  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  while 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  all  the  productions  of  more 
southern,  and  even  of  tropical  climates,  might,  in  the  low 
grounds  near  Algiers,  be  naturalized  to  the  greatest  advan- 
tage. For  the  various  methods  of  improvement  suggested 
in  the  httle  work  from  which  we  quote,  and  more  particularly 
the  scheme  for  draining  the  marshes  in  the  great  plain  of  the 
Metijah,  we  must  refer  the  reader  to  an  examination  of  its 
pages,  which  he  will  find  full  of  intelligence  and  statistical 
knowledge.* 

M.  Rozet  concludes  his  work  with  a  statement  addressed 
to  all  civilized  nations,  reminding  them,  that  in  the  year  1830 
a  French  army  took  Algiers,  destroyed  the  piracy  which, 
during  three  centuries,  had  desolated  the  world,  and  laid  the 
first  foundations  of  civilization  in  Northern  Africa  ;  that  in 
order  to  continue  this  great  work,  France  requires  the  aid 
and  concurrence  of  the  other  European  powers  ;  but  that 
hitherto  she  has  made  the  appeal  in  vain,  their  ears  being  closed 
to  her  voice  as  well  as  to  that  of  humanity,  f 

The  sentiments  of  this  writer,  in  regard  to  the  point  now 
stated,  have  not  been  generally  approved  by  his  countrymen, 
who  see  in  the  plan  he  has  proposed  the  seeds  of  misunder- 

*  Annuaire,  p.  40-48.  f  Voyage,  tome  iii.,  p.  432. 


THE  REGENCY   OF  ALGIERS.  273 


standing  among  the  occupants  of  the  soil,  if  drawn  from  dif- 
ferent kingdoms,  and  the  source  of  a  long-continued  misery 
to  the  unhappy  natives.  No  doubt,  the  civilization  of  North- 
ern Africa,  undertaken  at  the  common  expense  of  enlightened 
Europe,  is  a  grand  and  generous  idea  ;  but,  if  attempted,  it 
would  soon  be  found  impracticable  ;  for,  whatever  may  be 
the  mask  which  philanthropy  assumes,  self-interest  is  always 
at  the  bottom  of  such  undertakings  ;  and  this  feeling,  which 
so  universally  influences  individuals,  is  seldom  absent  in  the 
calculations  even  of  the  most  liberal  cabinets.  The  task 
would  no  sooner  be  completed,  than  the  apparent  benevolence 
from  which  it  took  its  rise  would  resolve  itself  into  the  desire 
of  aggrandizement  ;  and  the  Barbary  States,  redeemed  from 
ignorance  and  despotism  by  the  arras  of  Christendom,  would 
become  the  prey  of  ambition,  jealousy,  and  intrigue.* 

Perhaps  there  might  be  estabhshed  with  perfect  safety  at 
»  present,  and  without  the  hazard  of  ultimate  contention,  two 
great  centres  of  civilization,  the  rays  of  which  would  in  due 
time  extend  over  the  contiguous  provinces  ;  one  in  the  Al- 
gerine  territory,  as  now  occupied  by  the  French,  and  the  other 
in  the  Cyrenaica,  at  Derna  or  Ptolemeta.  The  Great  Syrtis 
would  supply  the  line  of  demarcation,  and  mark  out  the  re- 
spective scenes  in  which  the  policy  and  arts  of  an  instructed 
people  should  again  form  the  basis  of  knowledge,  freedom, 

*  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voyages,  Dec,  1833.  In  an  able  ar- 
ticle by  Laurenaudi^re,  in  the  form  of  a  review  of  M.  Rozet's 
work,  there  are  some  good  observations  on  the  expediency  and 
advantages  of  colonizing  Northern  Africa.  He  says, — "  II  ne 
s'agit  point  de  civiliser  la  Barbaric,  maisde  former  un  etablisse- 
ment  agricole,  industriel,  et  commercial  dans  I'ancienne  regence 
d' Alger. — Soyons  assures  qu'avec  la  perseverance,  Arabes  et 
Berb^res  finiront  par  se  fatiguer  d'attaques  inutiles,  et  qu'un  jour 
I'amour  du  gain  les  appellera  vers  nous  ;  s'ils  preferent  a  la  paix 
une  guerre  prolongee,  leur  perte  est  certaine. — Comme  position 
militaire,  I'occupation  d'Alger,  de  Bonne,  de  Bougie,  et  surtout 
d'Oran,  est  d'une  haute  importance  pour  la  France.  Oran,  par 
ses  forts  magnifiques,  travaux  des  Espagnols,  que  nous  n'avons 
rien  de  mieux  a  faire  que  de  reparer,  par  sa  belle  rade  de  Mers 
el  Kebir,  oh  cent  vaisseaux  peuvent  etre  en  surete,  est  le  seul 
point  maritime  important  que  nous  puissions  avoir  depuis  le  cap 
Matifou,  jusqu'au  detroit  de  Gibraltar.  En  cas  de  guerre  mari- 
time, il  n'est  pas  besoin  d'insister  sur  les  avantages  d'une  sem- 
blable  position." 


S74  THE  REGENCY  OF  ALGIERS. 


and  social  happiness.  The  soil  and  climate  in  this  portion 
of  the  globe  afford  the  means  of  maintaining  a  vast  popula- 
tion, which,  for  many  ages,  could  not  exhaust  the  sources  of 
affluence  and  comfort.  A  growing  trade  with  the  regions  of 
the  East  and  the  South,  would  by  degrees  compensate  ihe 
sacrifices  which  might  be  necessary  in  the  commencement 
of  a  colonization  so  comprehensive,  and  exposed,  at  the  same 
time,  to  the  numerous  difficulties  inseparable  from  the  de- 
pravity and  ignorance  of  the  actual  possessors.  To  Ameri- 
ca, as  well  as  to  other  nations  which  contemplate  the  ad- 
vantages of  commerce  and  of  a  large  maritime  force,  a  com- 
manding position  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  might 
seem  not  too  dearly  purchased  at  the  expense  of  that  protec- 
tion which  all  infant  settlements  require.  Every  traveller  in 
the  eastern  section  of  Northern  Africa,  struck  with  the  beauty 
of  the  scenery,  the  productive  qualities  of  the  land,  the  agree- 
able atmosphere,  and  the  numerous  local  conveniences  foi 
intercourse  with  the  wealthiest  kingdoms  of  the  European 
continent,  has  recommended  the  project  of  establishing  colo 
nies  within  the  bounds  of  the  ancient  Pentapolis. 

The  experience  of  France,  it  is  true,  has  not  hitherto 
proved  very  encouraging  to  others  who  might  meditate  a  sim- 
ilar adventure.  But  colonization,  it  must  be  remembered, 
was  in  her  case  only  a  secondary  motive,  and  dictated  by  the 
necessity  of  completing  the  objects  for  which  the  great  ex- 
pedition was  formed — the  protection  of  her  flag,  and  the  per- 
manent suppression  of  piracy.  The  occupation  of  Algiers 
resulted  as  a  consequence  obviously  arising  from  the  triumph 
of  her  arms  ;  and  the  settlements  which  she  now  attempts  to 
form  are  meant,  not  only  to  secure  the  possessions  already 
gained,  but  also  to  render  them  less  burdensome  to  th*»  na- 
tional revenue. 

From  the  facts  now  mentioned,  it  will  not  appear  surpri- 
sing that  the  proceedings  of  the  French  government  in  Africa 
have  not  been  marked  by  any  regard  to  system,  and  have  con- 
sequently given  offence  both  to  the  natives  and  to  the  Euro- 
pean settlers.  Law  has  not  yet  acquired  any  dominion  in 
their  new  conquests  ;  every  thing  being  regulated  by  procla- 
mations issued  from  the  headquarters  of  the  general,  which, 
it  is  complained,  do  not  always  recognise  the  same  principles, 
nor  contribute  to  the  attainment  of  the  same  ends.  We 
have  alluded  to  rumours,^  occasionally  revived,  that  Louis 


THE  REGENCY  OF  AIGIERS.  275 


PLilippe  has  determined  to  relieve  his  exchequer  of  the 
burden  entailed  by  this  colony  ;  but,  as  some  of  the  most 
formidable  obstacles  to  complete  success  have  been  already 
re-noved,  it  may  be  presumed  that  the  enterprising  spirit  of 
his  subjects  will  encourage  and  enable  him  to  persevere  in 
an  undertaking  so  essential  to  the  security  of  all  Christian 
states.* 

♦  The  following  notice,  forwarded  to  London  by  the  proper 
authority  at  Paris,  may  perhaps  be  regarded  as  an  indication 
that  there  is  no  serious  intention  of  abandoning  their  con- 
quest : — 

"  Notice  is  hereby  given,  that,  since  the  18th  November,  1834, 
a  Revolving  Light  has  been  substituted  for  the  old  Fixed  Light 
on  the  Mole  of  Algiers,  continuing  throughout  the  night,  and 
the  light  disappearing  regularly  every  half  minute." 

On  the  subject  of  the  French  expedition,  we  may  refer  to  the 
following  books  recently  published : — "  Appel  en  faveur  d' Alger, 
et  de  TA^firique  du  Nord."  *'Aper<ju  Historique  et  Statistique 
surla  Regence  d' Alger,  &c.,  par  Sidi  Hamadan  Ben  Othman 
Khoja,"  and  the  various  numbers  of  the  Annales  des  Voyages. 
There  is  much  information,  too,  in  the  works  of  Shaler,  Poiret, 
Hoest,  Norberg,  Bruns,  Langier  de  Tassy,  Renaudot,  and  De». 
fontaines 


276 


EMPIRE  OF  MOROCCO. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

Empire  of  Morocco. 

Boundaries  of  Morocco —Extent— Divisions  — Fertility— Pro- 
ductions— Not  fully  cultivated — Metallic  Treasures,  Iron, 
Copper,  Gold,  and  Silver— Population— History— Aglabites 
—  Edrisites  —  Fatiinites  —  Z  uhites—  Hamadians  — Abn-Has- 
sians — Abdallah-ben-Jasin — Almoravides  — Almohades  — Me- 
rinites— Oatazi— Shereef  Hassan— Various  Races  of  Men- 
Administration  of  Justice— Rude  Government— Oppression— 
Court-dress — Arrogance  of  the  Moors — Their  patient  Endu- 
rance—Equality of  Rank— Mode  of  eating— Ceremony  of  Mar- 
riage— Religion — Treatment  of  Christians  and  Jews — Reve- 
nue—Melilla—Velez—Tetuan—Ceuta— Tangier— Arzillah — 
El  Haratch— Meheduma— Sallee  —Rabat  — Schella  — Maza- 
gan — Mogadore — Agadeer — Morocco — Population — Palace — 
Fez  —  Edifices  —  Decayed  State  — Terodant  —  Mequinez  — 
Royal  Residence— Manners  of  Inhabitants. 

The  geographical  position  of  Morocco  is  bounded  on  the 
north  and  vfest  by  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Atlantic  re- 
spectively ;  on  the  south  by  the  Sahara,  or  Great  Desert ; 
and  on  the  east  by  the  river  Moulouia,  which  separates  it 
from  the  Algerine  province  of  Tlemsan,  and  coincides  with 
the  ancient  division  of  Numidia  and  Mauritania  Proper. 
From  the  ocean  to  the  stream  now  specified,  the  distance  is 
not  less  than  200  miles  :  while  the  length  of  the  empire, 
from  Cape  Spartel  to  Cape  Nun,  is  about  550,  comprehend- 
ing nearly  eight  degrees  of  latitude.  It  has  been  observed, 
however,  that  the  Arabs  beyond  the  southern  bank  of  the  Suz, 
though  they  nominally  acknowledge  the  sovereignty  of  Mo- 
rocco, yet,  availing  themselves  of  their  great  distance  from 
the  seat  of  government,  and  other  local  advantages,  pay  very 
little  attention  to  the  imperial  mandates.* 

*  Malte  Brun,  vol.  iv.,  p.  187.  Conder's  Geographical  Dic- 
tionary, article  Morocco.  In  the  latter  work,  as  well  as  in  the 
Modem  Traveller,  there  is  a  misprint— Lat.  28'>  30'  N.  for  lat 
28°  36'  N. 


EMPIRE  OF  MOROCCO. 


27? 


The  whole  country  comprises  four  grand  divisions,  answer- 
ing to  the  four  kingdoms  into  which  the  territory  was  origi- 
nally distributed  ;  namely,  Fez,  or  Fas,  Morocco,  Suz,  and 
Tafilet,  according  to  the  following  table  : — 

Fez. 

Provinces.  Towns. 

1.  EI  Rif,  Woojada,  Melilla. 

2.  El  Gharb,  or  Algarve,  -   -   Tetuan,  Tangier,  Arzillah. 

3.  Beni  Hassan,     ....    Sallee,  Rabat. 

4.  Temsena,  Dar  el  Beeda. 


5.  Shawiya. 

6.  Fez,    Fez,  Mequinez. 

7.  Tedla. 

Morocco. 

1,  Duquella,   Mazagan,  Aziraore. 

2.  Abda,   Saffi. 

3  Shedma,   Mogadore. 


4.  Haha,  or  Hea. 

6.  Morocco,  Morocco. 

Suz. 

1.  Suz,  or  Suza,     -  -   Agadeer,  Terodant,  Imoon. 

2.  Draha. 

Tafilet. 

1.  Tafilet,   Tafilet. 

2.  Draha. 

3.  Segilmissa,  Segilmissa. 

The  distinguishing  geographical  features  of  the  country 
are  connected  with  the  grand  chain  of  the  Atlas,  by  which  it 
is  traversed  in  its  whole  extent,  and  which,  in  the  southern 
parts,  attains  a  great  elevation.  Its  summits,  covered  with 
perpetual  snow,  are  seen  at  the  distance  of  nearly  200  miles, 
and  are  therefore  estimated  to  be  not  less  than  12,000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  loftiest  peaks  are  observed 
to  the  southeast  of  Morocco,  and  are  known  by  the  corrupt 
appellation  of  Jebel  Tedla — a  term  supposed  to  have  some 
reference  to  the  more  common  name  by  which  they  are  cel- 
ebrated in  the  classical  works  of  the  Gree':s  and  Romans. 

All  travellers  agree  in  praising  the  fertility  of  the  king- 
doms of  Fez  and  Morocco,  the  one  of  which  is  situated  to  the 
north  and  the  other  to  the  west  of  the  Atlas.  Within  such 
Jatitudes  the  climate,  as  might  be  expected,  is  comparatively 
mild  ;  while  the  country,  generally  speaking,  is  free  from 


2t8  EMPIRE  OF  MOROCCO. 


those  marshy  tracts  which,  in  the  hotter  regions  of  the  earth, 
are  found  to  produce  the  most  fatal  diseases.  In  the  nor- 
thern provinces  the  temperature  is  nearly  the  same  as  that 
which  prevails  in  the  Spanish  peninsula,  having  the  autumnal 
and  vernal  rains  peculiar  to  the  southern  parts  of  Europe ; 
but  towards  the  Desert,  the  depositions  from  the  atmosphere 
are  less  copious  and  frequent,  and  the  heat  of  course  is  more 
oppressive.  Indeed,  beyond  the  river  Suz,  little  or  no  rain 
falls  throughout  the  year,  and  it  is  principally  on  this  account 
that  the  caravans  experience  so  much  difficulty  in  traversing 
the  sandy  waste. 

We  are  informed  by  Dr.  Lempriere,  that  the  soil,  thangh 
varying  in  its  nature  and  quality,  is,  when  properly  cultivated, 
capable  of  producing  all  the  luxuries  of  the  eastern  and  west- 
ern worlds.  The  plains  of  the  interior  uniformly  consist  of  a 
rich  black  loam,  which  renders  them  fertile  beyond  all  cal- 
culation. The  mountainous  parts,  too,  by  the  application  of 
a  little  skill  and  capital,  might  be  covered  with  most  of  those 
plants  which  delight  in  the  elevated  tracts  of  sultry  regions  ; 
including  coffee,  cocoa,  and  pimenta,  with  all  the  tropical 
fruits  and  delicacies  on  which  Europeans  set  so  high  a  value. 
Experience  has  proved  that  sugar,  cotton,  rice,  and  indigo, 
may  be  raised  to  much  advantage  and  at  a  trifling  expense 
of  labour.  From  the  slight  culture  which  the  land  at  present 
receives,  which  is  merely  that  of  burning  the  stubble  before 
the  autumnal  rains,  and  the  ploughing  it  about  six  inches 
deep,  it  produces  at  a  very  early  season,  and  in  most  luxuri- 
ant abundance,  excellent  wheat  and  barley,  Indian  corn, 
peas,  hemp,  and  a  great  variety  of  esculent  vegetables. 
Among  the  fruits  may  be  mentioned  oranges  of  a  very  supe- 
rior quality,  lemons,  citrons,  pomegranates,  melons,  olives, 
figs,  grapes,  almonds,  dates,  peaches,  apricots,  apples,  pears, 
cherries,  plums,  and,  in  short,  all  the  fruits  to  be  found  in  the 
southern  provinces  of  Spain  and  Portugal.  The  natives  pre- 
serve their  grains  in  "  matamores" — holes  made  in  the  earth, 
lined  and  covered  with  straw,  to  prevent  the  rain  from  soak- 
ing through  ;  and  in  these  receptacles  corn  may  be  kept  five 
or  six  years  without  undergoing  any  material  change. 

Could  a  proper  spirit  for  agriculture  and  foreign  commerce 
be  introduced  into  the  country,  or,  in  other  words,  could  the 
sovereign  be  persuaded  that,  by  suffering  his  subjects  to  be 
enriched,  he  would  improve  his  own  treasury,  the  empire  of 


EMPIRE  OF  MOROCCO. 


279 


Morocco,  from  its  convenient  situation  with  respect  to  Eu- 
rope, and  from  the  natural  luxuriance  of  its  soil,  might  ac- 
quire a  very  high  political  importance.  But  everywhere 
there  are  immense  tracts  lying  waste  and  uncultivated, 
which,  with  little  attention,  might  be  converted  into  a  source 
of  almost  inexhaustible  wealth  to  the  inhabitants.  From  this 
representation,  it  would  scarcely  be  supposed  credible  that 
Spain,  which  is  also  a  fine  country  and  a  civilized  nation, 
should  from  time  to  time  be  obliged  to  remit  to  the  bar- 
barian emperor  large  sums  of  money,  to  induce  him  to  al- 
low his  subjects  to  export  corn,  as  well  as' most  other  pro- 
visions and  fruits,  from  Tangier  and  Tetuan.  Indeed,  the 
southern  provinces  of  Spain  can  hardly  subsist  without  this 
supply.* 

We  are  told  that  the  Jews  in  most  of  the  towns  make  wine  ; 
but,  owing  either  to  the  grapes  not  being  in  such  perfection 
as  those  of  Europe,  or  to  an  improper  mode  of  preparing  it, 
the  flavour  is  very  indifferent.  They  also  distil  a  species  of 
brandy  from  figs  and  raisins,  well  known  in  that  country  by 
the  name  of  aquadent.  This  liquor  has  a  disagreeable  taste, 
but  in  point  of  strength  is  httle  inferior  to  spirits  of  wine.  It 
is  drunk  very  freely  by  the  Hebrews,  without  being  diluted, 
on  their  feasts  or  days  of  rejoicing  ;  and  there  are  few  of  the 
Moors  who  are  disposed  to  forego  any  private  opportunity  of 
taking  their  share  of  so  exhilarating  a  beverage.  These  last 
likewise  cultivate  tobacco,  of  which  there  is,  near  Mequinez, 
a  description  which  can  be  converted  into  a  snuff  not  inferior 
to  Maccaba. 

In  the  mountains  of  Atlas  there  are  numerous  iron-mines  ; 
but,  as  the  Moors  do  not  understand  the  mode  of  working 
the  ore,  they  have  hitherto  proved  of  trifling  value.  The 
neighbourhood  of  Terodant  is  said  to  abound  in  copper  ;  and 
the  natives  assert  that,  in  the  loftier  parts  of  the  range,  there 
are  also  veins  of  gold  and  silver,  which  the  emperor  will  not 
permit  them  to  touch.  This  opinion  is  received  by  Dr. 
Lempriere  with  hesitation,  being  satisfied  that,  if  it  had  any 
foundation  in  truth,  the  Berbers,  who  inhabit  the  high 
grounds,  and  who  pay  very  little  respect  to  the  government 

*  Tour  from  Gibraltar  to  Tangier,  &c.,  by  Wm.  Lempriere, 
LL.D.,  p.  90.  The  exportation  of  com  has  of  late  years  been 
totally  prohibited. 


280 


EMPIRE  OF  MOROCCO. 


of  Morocco,  would  long  ago  have  availed  themselves  of  such 
a  treasure.  Later  writers,  however,  have  removed  all  doubts 
as  to  the  fact,  that  among  the  minerals  of  the  Atlantic  group 
are  to  be  found  distinct  traces  of  the  precious  metals. 

Of  the  population  under  the  nommal  jurisdiction  of  this 
Mohammedan  sovereignty,  the  extent  has  been  so  imperfect- 
ly ascertained,  that  the  estimate  varies  from  fourteen  millions 
to  four  and  a  half.  Mr.  Jackson,  who  long  officiated  at 
Mogadore  as  British  consul,  gives  the  numbers  as  follows  : — 

Cities  and  towns  of  the  empire,   936,000 

Morocco  and  Fez,  west  of  Atlas,  ....  10,300,000 

Nomadic  tribes,  north  of  Atlas,  3,000,000 

Tafilet,  east  of  Atlas,   650,000 

14,886,000 

There  cannot  be  any  doubt  that  this  statement  is  greatly 
overrated,  although  the  author  is  understood  to  have  had  ac- 
cess to  the  imperial  registers,  in  which  were  inscribed  all  the 
names  of  the  persons  who  paid  taxes.  Such  records,  in  a 
country  where  to  number  the  people  is  a  religious  misde- 
meanor, must  be  regarded  as  a  very  equivocal  ground  of  in- 
formation ;  because  there  are  many  motives  which  might  in- 
duce the  government  to  augment  the  apparent  sources  of  its 
revenue,  which  yet  would  have  no  connexion  with  an  accu- 
rate census.  Mr.  Jackson  was  informed,  for  example,  that 
the  citv  of  Morocco  contained  270,000  inhabitants,  and  Fez, 
380,000  ;  while  more  recent  travellers,  worthy  of  the  utmost 
confidence,  assign  to  the  former  capital  only  30,000  dwellers, 
and  to  the  latter  not  more  than  70,000.* 

With  respect  to  the  history  of  this  kingdom,  viewed  as  a 
member  of  the  Barbary  States,  it  is  well  known  that  it  repre- 
sents one  of  the  monarchies  founded  by  the  Arabs  during  the 
period  of  tl^cjir  domination  in  Northern  Africa.  The  dynasty 
of  the  Aglabites,  whose  capital  at  one  time  was  Kairwan, 
and  that  of  the  Edrisites,  who  resided  at  Fez,  were  subjuga- 
ted by  the  Fatimites.  These  last,  while  they  were  occupied 
with  the  conquest  of  Egypt,  allowed  their  western  posses- 
sions to  be  seized  by  the  Zuhites,  who  again  were  succeeded 
by  the  Hamadians  and  the  Abn-Hassians  in  the  provinces  of 

♦  Hoest  and  Chenier,  quoted  by  Malta  Brun,  vol.  iv.,  p.  198, 


EMPIRE  OF  morocco! 


281 


Tunis  and  Constantia.  But,  in  the  remoter  part  of  their  ter- 
ritory, a  chief  of  the  Lamethouni,  a  tribe  belonging  to  the 
Great  Desert,  at  present  unknown,  chose  for  the  reformer  of 
his  people,  as  well  as  their  legislator  and  highpriest,  an  ex- 
traordinary person,  named  Abdallah-ben-Jasin,  whose  man- 
ner of  living  and  habits  combined  an  apparent  abstinence 
with  the  most  unbounded  licentiousness.  This  artful  fanatic 
originated  a  sect,  distinguished,  in  the  first  instance,  by  fu- 
rious zeal,  and  at  all  times  extremely  ambitious  and  enter- 
prising, called  the  Almoravides,  or,  more  properly,  the  Mora- 
beth.  These  enthusiasts  issued  from  the  Desert  like  a  fiery 
hurricane,  threatening  by  turns  Africa  and  Europe ;  their  leader 
assuming  the  title  of  Emir  al  Mumenim,  or  Prince  of  the 
Faithful.  In  1052,  one  of  their  commanders  built  the  city  of 
Morocco,  then  called  Marakash,  while  another  invaded  and 
overran  the  finest  part  of  Spain.  This  last  is  celebrated  for 
having  gained,  in  1180,  the  battle  of  Sala,  near  Badajos,  in 
which  Alphonso,  the  Christian  king,  lost  his  life.  The  same 
people  expelled  from  that  country  the  dynasty  of  the  Ommia- 
des  ;  and  it  was  during  the  confusion  which  preceded  the  fall 
of  this  family  that  some  of  the  rival  claimants  called  the  Al- 
moravides to  their  aid.  These  Africans,  like  the  first  inva- 
ders, advanced  with  the  strength  and  entei-prising  spirit  of  a 
new  race  ;  nor  could  the  Christians  have  made  head  against 
them,  if  they  had  not  found  allies  among  the  Moorish  kings, 
who,  at  this  time,  established  shortlived  sovereignties  ;  and 
who,  when  the  Morabeth  were  driven  out,  became  themselves 
an  easy  prey. 

At  the  same  time,  the  rule  of  these  enthusiasts,  whose  ob- 
jects were  not  less  political  than  religious,  extended  over 
Algiers,  the  Sahara,  Timbuctoo,  and  Soudan  ;  but,  in  the 
year  1146,  sectaries  of  a  more  austere  character,  designated 
the  Almohades,  usurping  the  good  fortune  which  had  so  long 
attended  the  disciples  of  the  son  of  Jasin,  invaded  the  empire 
of  the  West,  and  reduced  it  to  submission.  Like  the  others, 
they  endeavoured  to  estabUsh  the  faith  of  their  prophet  in 
the  southern  kingdoms  of  Europe,  and  fought  several  obsti- 
nate battles  in  the  plains  of  Andalusia  ;  but,  failing  in  this 
attempt,  they  received  some  compensation  in  the  success 
with  which  they  carried  their  tenets  and  their  arms  along  the 
northern  coast  of  Africa,  even  as  far  as  the  gates  of  Tripoli. 
The  power,  too,  founded  on  fanaticism,  was  doomed  to  be 
A  a  2 


282 


EMPIRE  OF  MOROCCO. 


undermined  by  the  same  active  spirit  from  which  it  had 
sprung.  Intestine  discord,  the  usual  effect  of  rehgious  ex- 
citement, laid  the  Almohades  open,  in  their  turn,  to  the  as- 
sault of  a  more  recent  class  o."  schismatics,  among  whom 
were  the  Merinites,  who,  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
cent'jry,  gained  possession  of  the  kingdoms  of  Fez  and  Mo- 
rocco. This  tribe,  however,  more  desirous  to  confirm  than 
to  extend  their  dominion,  made  no  attempt  to  re-establish  the 
great  empire  of  Mogreb,  the  mighty  sovereignty  of  the  West ; 
though  this  precaution  did  not  entirely  prevent  the  evil 
which  was  so  justly  apprehended.  Hordes,  of  unknown 
name  and  origin,  continued  to  issue  from  the  Eastern  Desert, 
animated  with  warmer  zeal  and  fortified  with  higher  preten- 
sions ;  and,  as  such  ardour  is  better  suited  for  subduing  king- 
doms than  for  perpetuating  a  regular  authority,  the  old  set- 
tlers were  uniformly  seen  to  give  place  to  the  more  modern 
fanatics.  The  power  of  the  Beni  Merini  was  accordingly 
overthrown  by  the  Oatazi,  an  obscure  race,  who  envied  their 
greatness  and  aspired  to  supreme  dominion  ;  and,  as  this 
revolution  coincided  with  certain  efforts  on  the  part  of  the 
Portuguese  to  extend  the  Christian  faith  to  the  shores  of  Af- 
rica, the  stability  of  the  Moorish  kingdom  was  menaced  at 
once  from  two  opposite  quarters.  This  emergency  in  their 
affairs  induced  them  to  invite  a  shereef,  resident  in  Tafilet, 
named  Hassan,  who,  as  one  of  the  posterity  of  the  prophet, 
was  entitled  to  the  sovereignty  of  a  Mussulman  state.  He 
succeeded  completely  in  his  enterprise  ;  and  having  subdued 
the  barbarous  zealots  whose  phrensy  or  ambition  had  shaken 
the  empire  of  Mogreb,  he  placed  on  the  throne  his  own  dy- 
nasty, which  has  exercised  the  regal  ofBce  till  the  present 
day  ;  combining  with  the  dignity  of  sultan  the  more  sacred 
distinction  which  attaches  to  their  pedigree  as  the  progeny 
of  Mohammed.* 

Various  races  of  men,  we  are  told,  now  occupy  the  coun- 
try under  the  rule  of  his  present  majesty ; — the  Berbers, 
prunitive  troglodytes  of  Mount  Atlas,  and  the  parent  stock  of 
the  Guanches  found  in  the  Western  Isles ;  the  nomadic 
Arabs  of  the  great  plain  of  Morocco  ;  the  emigrants  from 
Spain,  who  possess  the  cities,  for  which  mode  of  life  nature 

*  Malta  Brun,  vol.  iv.,  p.  187.  Keatinge,  Travels  in  Europe 
and  Africa,  p.  199. 


EMPIRE  OF  MOROCCO. 


283 


seems  to  have  destined  them  ;  the  Jews,  who  fill  the  interior 
departments  of  commerce  ;  and  the  negroes,  who  appear  to 
have  gradually  removed  from  the  more  glowing  regions  of 
the  South.  These  several  denominations  of  human  beings, 
who  are  careful  to  trace  their  origin  to  different  sources,  are 
dispersed  from  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  to  Tafilet, 
the  capital  of  which  is  eighteen  days'  journey  from  the  city 
of  Morocco,  and  to  Suz,  of  which  the  boundaries  are  sup- 
posed to  extend  to  the  vicinity  of  the  Niger.* 

The  subjects  of  this  empire,  it  is  maintained,  are  still 
slaves  to  an  absolute  despot,  and  strangers  to  the  benefit  of 
fixed  laws,  their  only  rule  being  the  will  of  the  sultan. 
Wherever  this  prince  chooses  his  residence,  he  distributes 
justice  in  person  ;  for  which  purpose  he  generally  holds  a 
court  twice  a  week,  or  oftener,  according  to  circumstances, 
in  his  hall  of  audience,  graced  with  the  full  solemnity  of  a 
supreme  tribunal.  Here  all  complaints  are  addressed  to  him; 
every  person  has  the  freest  access  ;  and  he  hears  with  pa- 
tience each  individual  who  has  a  cause  to  defend,  whether 
natives  or  foreigners,  man  or  woman,  rich  or  poor.  Distinc- 
tions of  rank  are  not  regarded  ;  every  one  being  entitled, 
without  hinderance  or  embarrassment,  to  approach  the  com- 
mon sovereign.  Sentence  is  promptly  pronounced,  always 
with  the  authority  of  an  absolute  and  final  decision,  but  gen- 
erally, it  is  admitted,  in  the  spirit  of  the  most  impartial 
equity. 

With  the  exception,  however,  of  these  imperial  audiences, 
the  administration  of  atfairs  is  marked  by  disorder,  rapine, 
and  violence.  The  governors  of  provinces  have  the  title  of 
caliph  or  lieutenant,  of  pacha  or  kaid ;  and  everywhere 
combine  judicial  with  executive  power  to  such  an  extent, 
that  they  remit  to  the  judges  no  case  which  does  not  present 
some  peculiar  ditficulty.  In  some  of  the  towns,  and  especially 
in  Fez,  there  are  cadis,  or  independent  magistrates,  who  are 
invested  with  great  authority  as  interpreters  of  the  law  ;  but 
it  is  remarked,  that  as  the  governors  and  judges  are  usually 
oppressed  by  the  sultan,  thev,  in  their  turn,  harass  and  defraud 
the  people.  The  lowest  ofl!icer  pillages  in  his  master's  name 
and  as  the  wealth  thus  acquired  falls  ultimately  into  the  ini- 
perial  treasury,  the  crime  is  overlooked  in  consideration  ol 


*  Keatinge,  p.  201. 


284 


EMPIRE  OF  MOROCCO. 


the  contingent  advantage.  The  sovereign  can  deprive  any 
one  of  his  subjects,  however  high  his  rank,  of  every  thing 
belonging  to  him,  except  what  is  strictly  necessary  to  prevent 
starvation  ;  and  this  exercise  of  despotic  power  is  not  unfre- 
quently  directed  against  those  who  have  amassed  riches  in 
the  discharge  of  their  official  duties.  The  confiscated  sums 
are  said  to  pass  into  the  common  coflfers  of  the  Mussulmans, 
and  this  is  the  only  account  of  them  that  is  either  asked  or 
given.  The  consequences  of  such  a  system  may  be  easily 
conceived.  The  people,  suspicious,  cruel,  and  perfidious, 
respect  no  sort  of  obligation ;  their  universal  aim  is  to  plun- 
der one  another  ;  no  confidence,  no  social  tie  exists  among 
them,  and  scarcely  even  any  feehng  of  affection  beyond  the 
narrowest  limits  of  domestic  Ufe.* 

Mr.  Jackson  informs  us,  that  the  people  belonging  to  the 
court  have  a  particular  dress,  never  appearing  before  the  em- 
peror in  a  hayk,  but  in  a  silham,  or  large  cloak  of  white 
woollen  cloth  ;  and  in  presence  of  a  pacha,  or  governor,  the 
hayk  is  thrown  over  the  shoulders,  which  at  other  times  hangs 
loosely  on  the  cap — a  mode  of  salutation  similar  to  that  of 
taking  off  the  hat  among  Europeans. 

The  pride  and  arrogance  everywhere  ascribed  to  the 
Moors,  appear  in  the  strongest  colours  within  the  dominions 
of  Morocco  ;  for  though  they  live  in  the  most  deplorable  state 
of  ignorance,  slavery,  and  superstition,  they  esteem  them- 
selves the  first  people  in  the  world,  and  contemptuously  brand 
all  others  with  the  epithet  of  barbarian.  It  is  not  denied, 
however,  that  some  of  the  better-educated  among  them  are 
courteous  and  polite,  and  even  possessed  of  great  suavity  of 
manners.  They  are  affable  and  communicative  where  they 
repose  confidence  ;  and  if  in  conversation  the  subject  of  dis- 
cussion be  serious,  and  the  parties  become  warm  in  dispute, 
they  have  usually  the  prudence  to  withdraw,  in  a  very  deli- 
cate manner,  the  contested  point,  and  to  substitute  another 
on  which  the  current  of  opinion  may  flow  more  gently.  They 
are  slow  to  take  offence  ;  but,  when  irritated,  they  are  both 
noisy  and  implacable.  There  is  a  noble  trait  in  their  char- 
acters which  ought  not  to  be  omitted — their  patience  and 
resolution  when  visited  by  misfortune  ;  they  never  despair ; 
po  bodily  suffering,  and  no  calamity,  however  great,  will  make 


Malte  BruQ,  p.  192. 


EMPIRE  OF  MOROCCO. 


285 


them  complain  ;  they  are  resigned  in  all  things  to  the  will  of 
Heaven,  and  wait  in  tranquil  hope  for  an  improvement  of 
their  conilition.  It  is  a  singular  point  of  etiquette,  among  a 
people  who  abide  with  so  much  firmness  the  decrees  of  fate, 
that  the  word  "  death"  is  never  mentioned  in  the  hearing  of 
the  sultan.  When  it  is  necessary  to  announce  to  him  the 
demise  of  any  person,  they  say,  "  he  has  fulfilled  his  destiny  ;" 
on  which  the  monarch  gravely  utters  this  pious  expression, 
*'  God  be  merciful  to  him." 

It  is  not  unworthy  of  remark,  too,  that  the  Moors  are  all 
equal  by  birth,  and  are  not  acquainted  with  any  difference  of 
rank  but  such  as  may  be  derived  from  official  employments. 
Hence,  the  meanest  man  in  the  nation  may  aspire  without 
presumption  to  a  matrimonial  connexion  with  the  highest 
family  not  ennobled  by  descent  from  the  prophet ;  and  so 
great  in  Morocco  are  the  effects  of  accident  or  caprice,  that 
the  peasant,  in  the  course  of  a  day,  may  change  places  with 
the  governor  of  a  province. 

This  people,  it  has  been  observed,  are,  for  the  most  part, 
more  cleanly  in  their  persons  than  in  their  clothes.  They 
wash  their  hands  before  every  meal,  which,  as  they  use  no 
knives  or  forks,  they  eat  with  their  fingers.  Half  a  dozen 
persons  sit  round  a  large  bowl  of  cmcusou,  and  after  the 
usual  ejaculation,  "  In  the  name  of  God,"  each  puts  his  hand 
into  the  dish,  and  taking  up  the  food,  throws  it  by  a  dexter- 
ous jerk  into  his  mouth,  without  suffering  the  fingers  to  touch 
the  lips.  However  repugnant  this  may  be  to  our  ideas  of 
cleanliness,  yet,  the  hand  being  always  washed  and  never 
touching  the  mouth  in  the  act  of  eating,  these  folks  are  by  no 
means  so  dirty  as  Europeans  have  sometimes  hastily  imagin- 
ed. They  have  no  chairs  or  tables  in  their  houses,  but  sit 
crosslegged  on  carpets  and  cushions  ;  and  at  meals  the 
bowl  or  dish  containing  the  repast  is  placed  on  the  floor.* 

When  a  Mussulman  is  inclined  to  marry,  he  makes  in- 
quiry of  some  confidential  servant  respecting  the  person  of 
her  mistress,  and  if  he  receive  a  satisfactory  description  of 
the  lady,  an  opportunity  is  sometimes  procured  to  see  her  at 
the  window  or  some  other  place.  This  interview  generally 
decides  whether  the  parties  are  to  continue  their  regards  ; 
and  if  the  young  man  be  satisfied  with  the  attractions  of  the 


♦  Account  of  the  Empire  of  Morocco,  p.  147. 


286 


EMPIRE  OF  MOROCCO. 


maiden,  he  takes  occasion  to  communicate  his  wishes  to  her 
father,  and  makes  his  proposal  for  marriage.  Of  the  wedding- 
ceremony  various  accounts  have  been  given  by  different 
authors.  According  to  Mr.  Jackson,  whose  acquaintance 
with  the  habits  of  the  people  was  minute  and  accurate,  the 
bridegroom  is  mounted  on  a  horse  with  his  feice  covered,  sur- 
rounded by  his  friends,  who  run  their  horses  and  discharge 
their  muskets,  as  if  they  meant  to  attack  him.  The  kettle- 
drum, the  triangle,  and  a  rude  kind  of  flute,  form  the  band 
of  music  ;  while  the  attendants  of  the  young  couple  dance 
and  jump  about,  twirling  their  firelocks  in  the  air,  and  other- 
wise expressing  their  satisfaction.  This  boisterous  mirth 
being  finished,  the  parties  go  to  the  house  of  feasting,  where 
the  evening  is  spent  in  great  conviviality,  not  without  a  certain 
violation  of  that  statute  in  their  religious  code  which  prohibits 
the  use  of  strong  drink.  It  is  not  expected  that  the  woman 
should  have  a  fortune  or  a  settlement ;  but  if  the  father  be 
rich,  he  generally  gives  a  dowry,  and  a  quantity  of  pearls, 
rubies,  and  diamonds — it  being  understood  that  this  shall  al- 
ways remain  her  own  property,  and  be  returned  with  her 
should  she  be  separated  from  her  husband. 

The  tenets  of  Islamism  are  well  known  to  constitute  the 
national  religion  of  Morocco.  Some  years  ago,  a  sect  sprang 
up  who  professed  a  species  of  deism  more  pare  than  that 
maintained  by  the  Mohammedan  creed,  inasmuch  as  in  their 
symbol  of  faith  they  left  out  the  name  of  the  prophet.  The 
declaration  of  belief  by  which  they  wished  to  be  distinguish- 
ed, comprehended  nothing  more  complex  than  the  following 
proposition  : — "  There  is  no  God  but  the  true  God."  His 
imperial  majesty,  however,  hostile  even  to  the  appearance  of. 
innovation,  discountenanced  the  authors  of  this  refined  Uni- 
tsrianism  ;  and,  as  might  be  expected,  under  a  government 
so  little  disposed  to  temporize,  he  had  soon  the  satisfaction  to 
learn  that  the  schismatics  were  again  favoured  with  more  or- 
thodox views.  But,  notwithstanding  this  vigilance  on  the 
part  of  the  sovereign,  every  religion  is  tolerated  which  main- 
tains the  unity  of  the  Divine  Being,  whatever  may  be  the 
modifications  with  which  this  leading  doctrine  is  expounded. 
In  Morocco  itself  there  are  Roman  Catholic  monasteries,  as 
well  as  at  Mogadore,  Mequinez,  and  Tangier  ;  though  the 
plonks  are  closely  watched,  and  occasionally  exposed  to  some 
T'^sations,    The  Jews,  on  the  contrary,  who  are  exceedingly 


EMPIRE  OP  MOROCCO. 


287 


numerous,  and  have  dwellings  even  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Atlas,  are  treated  with  the  most  revolting  inhumanity  ;  their 
situation,  both  civil  and  moral,  presenting  a  very  singular 
phenomenon.  On  the  one  hand,  their  industry,  their  address, 
and  their  intelligence,  make  them  masters  of  all  the  branches 
of  ade,  and  even  of  manufactures  ;  they  direct  the  royal 
coinage  ;  they  levy  the  duties  on  exports  and  imports  ;  and 
officiate  as  interpreters,  agents,  and  commissioners.  On  the 
other  hand,  they  experience  the  most  odious  treatment 
and  ill  usage.  They  are  prohibited  from  writing  in  Arabic, 
and  even  from  learning  the  characters  ;  because  no  profana* 
tion  could  be  esteemed  greater  than  the  sight  of  a  Jew  read- 
ing the  Koran.  Their  women,  too,  are  forbidden  to  wear 
any  green  article  of  clothing,  and  are  not  allowed  to  veil 
more  than  one  half  of  the  face.  In  passing  a  mosque,  the 
persecuted  Israelite  must  uncover  his  feet,  and  remove  his 
slippers  to  a  respectful  distance  ;  while  a  Moor  may  enter  a 
synagogue  without  ceremony,  and  even  insult  the  Rabbins.* 

The  revenue  of  the  empire  has  been  estimated  at  a  million 
of  piasters,  derived  partly  from  the  customs  and  partly  from 
the  tithe  of  land.  The  army,  which  is  equally  ignorant  of 
discipline  and  tactics,  consists  of  about  36,000  men,  of  whom 
not  less  than  two  thirds  are  negroes.  The  navy,  which  may 
amount  to  fifty  vessels,  was  in  former  days  almost  entirely 
employed  in  piracy  ;  the  situation  of  the  larger  ports  giving 
marauders  every  advantage  against  the  commerce  of  Europe. 

Having  exhibited  a  general  view  of  the  constitution  and 
manners  of  the  Western  Moors,  we  shall  now  present  a  brief 
description  of  their  principal  cities.  Proceeding  westward 
from  the  boundaries  of  Algiers,  we  come  to  the  town  of 
Melilla,  the  Rissadirium  of  antiquity,  which  is  in  possession 
of  the  Spaniards,  who  still  maintain  a  small  garrison.  In 
1774,  Sidi  Mohammed,  the  emperor  of  Morocco,  made  an  in- 
effectual attempt  to  reduce  it.  Having  no  trade,  it  is  now 
remarkable  for  nothing  but  its  fine  honey.  Velez,  or  Belis, 
a  village  placed  between  two  mountains,  somewhat  nearer 
the  straits,  is  supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Cartha- 
ginians, and  to  have  possessed  at  one  period  a  considerable 
degree  of  importance.  The  vicinity  abounds  in  excellent 
timber,  which,  lander  an  enlightened  government,  might  be 


♦  Aceaunt  of  Morocco,  p.  139, 


288 


EMPIRE  OF  MOROCCO. 


applied  to  the  purposes  of  shipbuilding — a  use  to  which  it  wm 
not  unfrequently  devoted  by  the  corsairs  along  the  shore,  be- 
fore the  Europeans  obtained  a  permanent  footing  in  their 
country. 

The  mouth  of  the  river  Busega  indicates  to  the  traveller 
that  he  has  arrived  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Tetuan,  a  place 
still  of  some  consequence,  and  at  a  former  epoch  very  popu- 
lous. It  is  pleasantly  situated. upon  a  rising  ground  between 
two  ranges  of  high  mountains,  one  of  them  constituting  a 
part  of  the  Lesser  Atlas.  Being  only  five  miles  distant  from 
the  Mediterranean,  it  commands  a  splendid  view  of  that  sea  ; 
and  the  valleys  below  are  variegated  with  gardens,  planta- 
tions of  olives  and  vineyards,  and  xnamented  with  the  fine 
stream  just  mentioned,  which  takes  its  course  through  its 
centre.  The  town  is  of  considerable  extent,  and  its  walls 
are  flanked  with  square  towers,  on  which  a  few  guns  are 
mounted  ;  but  the  streets  are  narrow  and  filthy,  and  many 
of  them,  like  those  in  Algiers,  are  nearly  arched  over  by  the 
houses.  The  Caisseria,  or  market-place,  is  filled  with  shops, 
containing  a  great  variety  of  valuable  articles,  both  of  Euro- 
pean and  African  workmanship.  Fez  supplies  the  inhabi- 
tants, not  only  with  the  manufactures  of  that  city,  but  also 
with  goods  brought  thither  from  the  Algerine  States,  Tunis, 
Alexandria,  and  Timbuctoo,  by  means  of  the  annual  caravans. 
In  Gibraltar  and  Spain  are  procured  certain  commodities 
sent  from  England,  Germany,  and  the  Peninsula,  which  are 
exchanged  for  the  produce  of  the  country,  or  for  the  rarer 
merchandise  of  the  lands  beyond  the  Sahara.* 

The  port  of  Tetuan  is  situated  about  two  miles  from  the 
sea,  and  is  named  Morteen.  At  this  place,  however,  as  we 
are  informed  by  Dr.  Lempri^re,  there  is  only  a  single  house 
used  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  the  customs.  As  the 
mouth  of  the  river  is  now  nearly  choked  up  with  sand,  it  ad- 
mits only  of  small  craft ;  and  even  these  can  proceed  no 
farther  than  the  station  now  described,  where  there  are  usu- 
ally some  of  the  imperial  galleys  anchored  for  the  winter. 
The  estuary  is  defended  by  a  high  square  tower,  on  which 
are  mounted  twelve  pieces  of  cannon.  Till  the  year  1770, 
Tetuan  was  the  residence  of  the  European  consuls  ;  but  an 
Englishman  having  by  accident  shot  or  wounded  a  native,  the 


*  T.<empri6re,  p.  430.    Jackson,  p.  92. 


EMPIRE  OF  MOROCCO. 


289 


emperor  swore  by  his  beard  that  no  Christian  charge  d'-affaires 
should  dwell  there  any  more.* 

Ceuta,  which  is  at  present  in  possession  of  Spain,  was 
heretofore  the  capital  of  Hispania  Tramfretdna,  and  oecupied 
by  the  Moors.  It  was  afterward  taken  by  the  Ar^bs  ;-  and 
again,  in  1415,  reduced  by  the  Portuguese,  who,  in  their 
turn,  saw  it  pass  into  the  hands  of  their  neighbours.  Beirfg 
a  commanding  position,  it  acquired  great  value  in  the  ey  es  of 
the  maritime  states,  as  affording  the  means  of  checking  the 
Barbary  pirates  j  and  to  the  Spaniards  in  particular  its  im- 
portance has  not  been  diminished  by  the  loss  of  Gibraltar. 
Various  efforts  have  been  made  by  the  sOvereigns  of  Morocco 
to  recover  it ;  but  as  it  is  almost  impregnable  towards  the 
land,  a  military  force  without  the  aid  of  a  fleet  raU^t  for  ever 
prove  unavailing. 

The  whole  coast,  from  hence  to  Tangier,  being  about  a 
day's  journey,  is  rugged  and  interspersed  with  projecting 
cliffs.  This  town,  anciently  called  Tinjis  and  Tingia,  was 
first  possessed  by  the  Romans,  next  by  the  Goths,  and  was, 
by  Count  Julian,  given  up  to  the  Mohammedans.  In  the  fif- 
teenth century  it  was  taken  by  the  King  of  Portugal,  who 
gave  it  as  a  marriage-portion  with  his  daiTghter  Catherine  to 
Charles  the  Second  0f  England  ;  but  the  subjects  of  the  lat- 
ter, finding  the  expense  of  keeping  it  to  exceed  greatly  any 
advantage  which  might  be  derived  from  its  possession, 
abandoned  it  in  1684,  after  destroying  the  mole  and  fortifica- 
tions. It  still  retains  some  batteries  in  good  condition  facing 
the  bay  ;  at  the  bottom  of  which  are  a  river  and  the  remains 
of  an  old  bridge,  which,  even  if  it  had  stood  till  now,  would 
have  been  entirely  superseded  by  the  accumulation  of  sand 
in  the  wonted  channel  of  the  current.  Viewed  from  the  sea- 
side, Tangier  presents  a  regular  aspect.  Its  amphitheatrical 
situation,  its  whitened  houses,  the  walls  surrounding  the 
town,  the  castle  built  on  a  hill,  tlie  consuls'  residences,  and 
the  grand  sweep  of  the  coast,  compose  an  interesting  picture  ; 
but  as  soon  as  the  streets  are  entered  the  illusion  ceases,  and 
the  visiter  finds  himself  surrounded  with  every  thing  that 
characterizes  the  most  squalid  wretchedness. t 

Doubling  Cape  Spartel,  the  waves  of  the  Atlantic  are  seen 
washing  the  little  town  of  Arzillah,  called  by  the  Carthagiu- 


*  Tackson,  p.  92.  i  Travels  of  Ali  Bey,  vol.  i.,  p.  12. 

B  b 


ians  Zillia,  and  by  the  Romans,  who  had  a  garrison  there, 
Julia  Tradiicta.  After  passing  through  the  hands  of  the 
Goths  and  Portuguese,  it  came  uUimately  into  the  possession 
of  the  Moors,  who  are  its  -masters  at  the  present  day.  It  has 
no  trade,  and  appears  entirely  destitute  of  wealth  and  indus- 
try ;  affording  shelter  only  to  a  few  miserable  inhabitants,  who 
acknowledge  a  government  more  ready  to  depress  than  be- 
friend them.  .  Leaving  this  decaying  village,  we  advance 
towards  EI  Haratch  or  Larache,  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Kos  or  Lucos.  Here  are  more  distinct  remainsiof  pros- 
perity ;  while  the  defences  and  the  commerce  of  the  port  in- 
dicate that  the  science  of  Europe  must  hav  e  aided  in  its  for- 
tifications. There  are  several  mosques,  too,  and  a  handsome 
bazar,  surrounded  with  stone  piazzas  ;  but  it  is  not  conceal- 
ed that  these  structures  rather  indicate  what  the  place  must 
have  forrherly  been,  than  correspond  to  what  it  now  is-.  The 
accumulation  of  sand,  too,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  threat- 
ens it  with  the  loss  of  the  httle  trade  which  it-  still  enjoys'. 
Mr.  Jackson  tells  us  that  in  1610  it  was  given  up  to  Spain, 
and,  in  1689^^ retaken  by  the  Emperor  Muley  Ismael.  He 
adds,  that  there  i*  an  excellent  market-place  in  the  town  ; 
that  the  castle  which  commands  Ihe  entrance  of  the  road  is 
in  good  repair  ;  that  the  guns  are  well  mounted  ;  and  that  it 
is  farther  strengthened  by  several  batteries  on  the  banks  of 
the  stream.  The  French  entered  it  in  1765  ;  but  by  a,  feint 
of  the  Moors  they  M'ere  induced  to  go  too  far  up,  when  they 
were  surrounded  by  superior  numbers,  and  fell  viotims  to 
their  own  impetuosity.* 

At  the  distance  of  sixty-five  miles  towards  the  south  stands 
Meheduma,  the  Mamora  of  Europeans,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Seboo.  It  is  situated  on  an  eminence,  close  to  the  river,  and 
described  as  a  poor  neglected  plade,  the  inhabitants  and  fer- 
rymen of  which  gain  a  livelihood  by  catching  a  species  of 
salmon— a  fish  found  in  great  quantities  between  autumn  and 
the  spring.  But  the  contiguous  country  is  much  more  re-  f 
markable  than  the  town,  consisting  of  an  immense  plain,  said 
to  extend  eighty  miles  into  the  interior,  as  smooth  as  a  bowl- 
ing-green, covered  ^vith  the  tichest  verdure,  and  diversified 
by  three  large  fresh-water  lakes,  which  are  adorned  with 
trees  and  shrubs,  and  well  stocked  with  waterfowl.  The 


•  Jackson,  p.  96. 


district  was  formerly  possessed  by  a  thick  population,  but  the 
incalculable  number  o?  moschetoes,  gnats,  and  other  annoying 
insects,  have  compelled  the  people  to  remove.  There  are  a 
few  insulated  spots  in  the  largest  lake,  which  is  not  less  than 
twenty  miles  in  length,  where  are  built  sanctuaries  for  the 
marabouts,  who  here,  as  well  as  elsewhere,  are  greatly  ven- 
erated by. -the  natives.  ' 

Sallee,  celebrated  as  the_resort  of  the  most  savage  order 
of  corsairs,  is  built  09  the  noirthern  bank  of  a  river  formed  by 
the  confluence  of  the  Bubegreg  and- Wieroo.  It  is  a  walled 
town,  and  rather  strongly  fortified  ;  but  the  navigation  of 
the  estuary  is  becoming  every  day  more  impeded  by  the 
usual  obstructiohs  of  sand  and  mud,  and  it  will,  in  a  short 
time,  cease  to  answer  the  purposes  of  commerce.  On  the 
opposite  side  of  the  stream  stands  Rabat,  which  is  raiher 
larger  than  the  other,  and  was  once  the  seat, of  several  Euro- 
pean factories,  to  which  were  confided  the  commercial  inter- 
ests of  their  respective  nations.  On  an  adjoining  eminence 
are  seen  the  remains  of  an  old  castle,  erected. by  the  Sultan 
El  Mansour,  in  the  twelfth  century,  some  bomb-proof  vaults 
j-emarkable  for  their  strength,  and  the  remams  of  a  battery 
meant  to  defend  the  port.  The  same  monarch  is  reputed  to 
have  built  a  famous  mosque,  the  roof  of  which  was  supported 
by  360  columns 'of  marble;  many  fragments  of  which  are 
found  scattered  m  the  neighbourhood.  At  a  little  distance 
is- a  l?irge  tower,  about  180  feet  in  height,  and  consisting  of 
seven  stories,  which  is  said  to  hive  been  constructed  about 
five  hundred  years  ago.  ft  is  ascended  by  an  inclined  plane, 
instead  of  a  stair,  so  that  a  person  may  reach  the  top  on  horse- 
back ;  while  the  path  has  beeq  formed  of  a  c?ment  so  hard 
as  to  defy  not  onlv  the  dissolving  power  of  time,  but  even 
the  more  direct  application  of  the  hammer  and  pickaxe.* 

On  the  eastern  side  of  Rabat  is  a  walled  town  named 
Schella,  supposed  to  be  the  metropolis  of  the  Carthaginian 
colonies,  anciently  founded  by  Hanno  on  this  border  of  tf^e 
Atlantic,  ft  is  esteemed  sacred  ground  by  the  Mussulmans, 
is  held  in  much  veneration,  and  protected  with  great  care 
against  the  approach  of -a  Christian.  Passing  Fedalla  and 
Dar  el  Beeda,  neither  of  which  presents  arty  thing  worthy  of 
observation,  we  come  to  Mazagan,  a  town  built  by  the  Por- 


♦  Jackson's  Morocco,  p.  100. 


292 


EMPIRE  OF  MOJIOCCO. 


tuguese,  who,  in  1769,  were  induced  to  evacuate  it  as  no 
longer  worthy  of  their  care.  As  OuaUda  and  Saffi  have 
nothing  which  could  interest  the  modern  reader,  we  omit  all 
allusion  to  their  mpuldering  walls  and  decayed  dwellings,  in 
order  to  reach  Mogadore,  the. usual  residence  of  a  British 
consul.  This  port  is  built  on-the  briiik  of  the  ocean,  defend- 
ed from  the  encroachment  of  the  waves  by  a  ledge  of  rocks, 
and  separated  from  the  cultivated  country  by  a  belt  of  sand. 
At  spring-tides  it  is  nearly  surrounded  by  the  swelling  wa- 
ters, which,  after  attaining  a  certain  height,  meet  with  no 
obstruction  on  the  flat  shore.  There  are  two  towns,  or  rather 
a  citadel  and  an  outer  tovAJ-n  ;  the  former  containing  the  cus- 
tom-house, the  treasury,  ihe  residence  of  the  kaid,  and 
the  houses  of  the  foreign  merchants  and  civil  officers.  The 
Jews,  not  enjoj'ing  any  of  the  distinctions  now  meniioned,  are 
obliged  to  live  in  the  latter,  which  is  also  walled  in  and  pro- 
tected by  sufficient  batteries.  The  Emperor  Sidi  Moham- 
med, to  impress  on  the  minds  of  the  people  his  desire  to  rnake 
Mogadoire  the  principal  commercial  port  on  the  ocean,  ordered 
the  pacha  and  other  depositaries  of  his  power  to  bring  him 
mortar  and  stones,  while  he,  with  his  own  hands,  began  to  build 
a  fortification,  which  is  still  to  be  seen  on  the  rocks  west  of 
the  town  ;  aiid  with  the  view  of  encouraging  the  traders  to 
erect  substantial  dwellings,  he  not  only  gave  them  ground, 
but  allowed  them  to  ship  produce  free  of  duty  until  their  ex- 
penses, were  reimbursed.  This  is  the  only  station  which 
maintains  a  regular  intercourse  with  Europe,  as  it  continues, 
in  some  degree,  to  profit  by  the  imnHmities  originally  confer- 
red by  his  imperial  highrvess. 

The  last  port  in  the  Atlantic  dominions  of  Morocco  is  Aga- 
deer,  the  Santa  Cruz  of  some  authors,  and  the  Guerguessem 
of  Leo  Africanus.  The  town,  which  stands  on  an  elevated 
position,  has  great  natural  strength,  and  its  walls  display 
a  few  mounted  guns  ;  while  the  bay  is  esteemed  the  safest  in 
the  empire  for  large  vessels"  being  sheltered  on  all  sides  from 
dangerous  winds.  It  was  fortified  in  1503  by  Emanuel,  king 
of  Portugal,  but  taken  by  the  Moors  about  thirty  years  after- 
ward ;  and  continuing  in  the  possession  of  these  last,  it  might 
have  attained  to  considerable  importance,  had  not  the  refrac- 
tory conduct  of  one  of  its  governors  provoked  the  emperor  in 
1773  to  dismantle  it,  and  transfer  its  commercial  priviieges^to 
Mogadore. 


EMPIRE  OF  MOROCCO. 


293 


Of  Morocco  itself  we  have  already  traced  the  origin  to  the 
eleventh  century,  when  the  foundations  were  laid  by  Yussuf 
Teshfin,  the  chief  of  a  tribe  who  occupied  the  lands  between 
Mount  Atlas  and  Tafilet.  The  surrounding  country  is  at 
once  beautiful  and  romantic  ;-  the  Alpine  range,  which  ter- 
minates the  view,  contrasting  in  a  very  striking  manner  vnth 
the  luxuriance  of  the  fields  and  gardens  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  capital.  The  lily-of-tlie-valley,  lupins',  fleurs-de-lis, 
roses,  jonquilles,  mignionette,  jasmines,  violets-,  the  orange  and 
citron-flowers,  and  many  others,  grow  there  sponUneouslyj 
and  in  the  mtfnths  of  March  and  April  the  air  in  the  morning 
is  strotigly  perfumed  with  their  grateful  and  delicious  odours. 
Among  the  fritits  are  oranges  of  the  finest  flavour,  figs  of  van- 
ons  kinds,  melons,  apricots,  peaches,  grapes,  dates,  plums, 
and  pomegranates.* 

Ali  Bey  asserts  that  the  city,  which  once  contained  about 
seven  hundred  thousand  inhabitants,  had  not,  when  Ke  was 
there  in  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  more  than 
thirty  thousand.  The  walls  jwhich  surrounded  it  have  sur- 
vived the  ravages  of  time  and  of  man,  and  give  some  proof  of 
the  former  splendour  of  the  place  ;  they  embrace  a  circum- 
ference of  about  seven  miles,'  the  interior  of  which  is  covered 
with  ruins  or  converted  into  gardens.  The  remainder  con- 
stitutes the  present  towni ;  but,  though  the  houses  are  in  a 
line,  and  form  streets,  there  are  many  spaces  left  unoccupied. 
There  are  several  public  squares  or  market-places,  which,  if 
they  were  })aved  and  kept  clean,  would  display  some  degrere 
of  magnificence^ ;  but,  in  this  neglected  state,  they  are  only 
remarkable  for  mud  when  it  rains,  and  for  dust  during  the  dry 
weather.  The  mosques  are  large,  and  have  even  a  certain 
measure  of  grandeur  in  their  constructibn  ;  though,  as  the 
architecture  is  of  diflferent  ages,  their  appearance  carries  not 
a  little  oifence  to  the  eye  of  taste. 

The  palace  of  the  sultan  is  situated  out  of  town  towards 
the  south,  and  is  composed  of  ,a  vast  group  of  buildings. 
Besides  the  apartments  for  his  majesty,  his  sons,  and  the 
numerous  females  who  make  part  of  the  establishment,  it 
contains  several  gardens.  The  different  officers  belonging 
to  the  court  have  also  their  separate  lodgings  ;  to  which  are 
added  two  mosques',  and  immense  yards  or  squares,  where 

*  Jackson,  p.  118. 
B  b  2 


294 


EMPIRE  OF  MOROCCO. 


the  emperor  holds  his  public  audiences,  giving  to  the  whole 
ihfi  semblance  of  a  royal  city  ;  and  which,  in  point  of  fact, 
occupies  a  circumference  of  about  three  miles. 

Thi?  unfortunate  capital  no  longer  enjoys  the  benefits  of 
trade,  commerce,  or  manufactures  ;  the  arts  and  sciences  are 
entirely  forgotten ;  and,  in  short,  says  Ali  Bey,  it  would  be 
impossible  to  believe  such  an  astonishing  and  rapid  decline, 
if  it  were  not  proved  by  its  large  walls,  its  immense  masses 
of  ruins,  and  the  great  number  of  conduits  now  become  use- 
less, and  its  vast  churchyards.* 

Fez,  another  metropolis  of  this  barbaric  empire,  displays 
the  same  symptoms  of  waste,  inisgovernment,  and  ignorance. 
It  IS  situated  on  the  slops  of  several  hills,  which  Surround  it 
on  every  side  except  the  north  and  northeast ;  affording,  as 
it  has  been  supposed,  the  usual  indifferent  lodging  to  about  a 
hundred  thousand  human  beings,  only  the  one  half  of  what 
they  were  prior  to  a  late  visitation  of  the  plague.  Like  Al- 
giers, its  streets  are  dark  and  gloomy,  because  they  are  not 
only  so  -narrow  that  two  horsemen  can  hardly  ride  together, 
but  also  because  the  houses,  which  are  very  high,  have  a  pro- 
jection on  the  first  floor,  which  intercepts  much  of  the  light. 
This  incom-enience  is  increased  by  certain  galleries  or  pas- 
sages connecting  the  upper  part  of  the  buildings,  and  by  the 
high  walls  which,  at  various  distances,  are  raised  across  the 
streets  as  if  to  support  the  houses  on  either  side.  These 
walls  have  arched  passages,  like  the  Bab  el  Ouad  in  the  city 
just  named,  which  are  shut  at  night ;  the  town  being  thereby 
divided  into  several  quarters,  and  all  communication  between 
them  entirely  precluded  until  sunrise,  t 

It  is  well  known  that  this  city,  the  most  celebrated  in 
Western  Barbary,  was  founded  in  the  year  786,  by  Idris,  a 
descendant  of  the  great  prophet,  and  is  divided  into  two 
parts,  called  the  old  and  new,  or  Fez  Jedide  and  Fez  el  Ba- 
lee.  It  is  not  so  extensive  as  Morocco,  but,  the  buildings 
being  more  lofty  and  spacious,  it  contains  a  greater  number 
of  inhabitants.  The  houses  have  flat  roofs,  ingeniously 
worked  in  wood  and  covered  with  cement,  on  which  the  /am- 
ilies  spread  carpets  in  summer,  to  enjoy  the  cool  breezes  of 
evening.;  a  small  turret  containing  a  room  or  two  is  also 
erected  upon  therti  for  the  use  of  the  ladies,  who  resort 

♦  Travels  of  Ali  Bey,  vol.  i.,  p.  157,      f  Ali  Bey,  p.  67 


EMPIRE  OF  MOROCCO. 


295 


thilher  for  amusement  and  recreation.  There  is  a  great  num- 
ber of  mosques,  sanctuaries,  and  other  public  edifices,  about 
fifty  of  which  are  very  splendid,  -being  ornamented  with  a 
kind  of  marble  unknown  in  Europe,  procured  in  the  Atlas 
Mountains.  The  hospitals  which  are  mentioned  by  early 
writers  must  have  fallen  greatly  into  decay,  as  there  are  now 
very  few  remaining.  In  these  the  poor  are  fed;  but  no  med- 
ical officer  attends  them  ;  women  alone  minister  to  the  sick 
and  infirm  till  they  recover,  or  death  terminates  their  suffer- 
ings. There  are  nearly  200  caravansaries,  or  inns,  each  con- 
taining from  fifty  to  a  hundred  apartments.  But,  except 
water  and  a  mat,  nothing  is  furnished  for  the  accommodation 
of  the  guest,  who  must  find  food  and  bedclothes  elsewhere.* 

Every  trade  or  profession  has  a  street  or  section  of  the 
town  allotted  to  it.  In  one  place  are  shops  occupied  by  no- 
taries or  scribes  ;  another  has  its  stationersr;  a  third  is  restrict- 
ed to  waxchandlers,  and  a  fourth  to  shoemakers  ;  while  fruit, 
bread,  and  meat,  are  sold  in  their  respective  localities.  The 
markets  for  provisions  are  very  numerous,  and  well  su'^olied 
with  victuals,  dressed  or  undressed  ;  being  in  this  respect  not 
inferior  to  the  majority  of  the  large  cities  in  Europe. 

It  is  not  concealed,  by  the  most  enthusiastic  travellers,  that 
the  ruins  and  mud  by  which  the  streets  of  Fez  are  encum- 
bered render  them  extremely  disagreeable.  The  houses,  too, 
are  so  miserably  decayed,  that  many  of  them  are  actually 
propped  up  ;  almost  all  are  without  windows  ;  and  the  few 
of  these  which  meet  the  eye  are  not  larger  than  a  common 
sheet  of  paper.  The  doors  likewise  have  a  mean  and  shabby 
appearance.  Behind  these  wretched  walls,  it  is  true,  are 
occasionally  concealed  mansions,  the  inside  of  which  presents 
something  like  comfort  and  elegance.  The  ceiling,  the  doors 
of  the  rooms,  and  the  arcades  of  the  courtyard,  are  painted 
in  various  colours,  and  even  overlaid  with  gold  and  silver; 
the  floors  being  decorated  with  Dutch  tiles,  or  with  marble 
of  different  teints,  arranged  so  as  to  form  rather  pleasing  de- 
signs.! 

Terodant  is  known  as  the  metropolis  of  the  south,  and  was 
formerly  that  of  the  kingdom  of  Susa.  It  still  possesses  a 
noble  palace,  adorned  with  gardens  containing  the  most  de- 
licious fruits ;  but,  generally  speaking,  it  has  lost  its  trade, 


♦Jackson,  p.  131. 


4  Ali  Bey,  p.  67. 


296 


EMPIRE  OF  MOROCCO. 


population,  and  the  consequence  which  once  belonged  to  it 
as  a  provincial  capital.  Its  reputation  is  now  confined  to  the 
manufacture  of  a  superior  kind  of  saltpetre,  and  the  prepara- 
tion of  leather  used  for  saddles. 

Mequinez,  the  second  city  of  Morocco,  standa  in  a  beauti- 
ful valley  about  sixty  miles  from  Sallee,  and  is  surrounded 
by  gentle  eminences  combining  all  the  attractions  of  nature. 
It  owes  its  extent  and  importance  to  the  policy  of  Sullan 
Muley  IsmaeVwho,  when  he  had  secured  to  himself  the  un- 
disputed sovereignty  of  the  small  kingdoms  which  now  con- 
stitute the  empire,  resolved  to  strengthen  the  northern  divis- 
ion of  it  byjerecting  a  walled  town  fit  to  receive  a  competent 
garrison.  At  the  south  end  he  built  a  palace,  forming  an 
immense  quadrangle,  and  enclosing  a  number  of  gardens, 
well  watered  by  streams  from  the  adjacent  country.  In  the 
centre  of  this  enclosure  is  the  harem,  which,  again,  surrounds 
a  small  paradise  planted  with  trees,  and  invested  by  a  gallery 
supported  on  massy  columns.  iThis  royal  residence  is  ren- 
dered more  spacious  by  being  constructed  altogether  on  the 
ground-floor.  The  rooms  are  long  and  lofty,  but  narrow, 
being  only  twelve  feet  wide,  while  they  are  eighteen  high 
and  twentv-five  in  length.  The  walls  are  inlaid  with  glazed 
tiles  of  bright  colours,  which  give  an  air  of  coolness  to  the 
apartments  ;  and  the  light  is  communicated  by  means  of  two 
large  folding-daors,  which  are  opened  more  or  less  according 
to  the  degree  of  clearness  required  in  the  interior.  Between 
the  different  suites  of  rooms  are  courts  regularly  paved  with 
square  pieces  of  black  and  white  marble,  and  in  the  centre 
of  some  of  them  are  seen  fountains  composed  of  the  same 
rich  material. 

The  inhabitants,  whose  manners  are  mild  and  courteous, 
compared  at  least  to  those  in  any  other  part  of  the  empire, 
are  also  very  hospitable  ;  taking  pleasure  in  inviting  stran- 
gers to  their  gardens  and  a  share  of  their  entertainments. 
The  women,  it  is  added,  are  handsome  without  exception ; 
and  to  a  fair  complexion,  with  expressive  black  eyes  and 
dark  hair,  they  unite  a  suavity  of  disposition  rarely  experi- 
enced in  the  most  polished  cities  of  Europe.* 

As  the  religion,  government,  military  system,  and  admin* 
ifltratioh  of  justice,  present  in  Morocco  features  very  similar 


♦  Jackson,  p.  129. 


EMPIRE  OF  MOROCCO. 


297 


to  those  which  prevail  throughout  the  other  states  of  Nor- 
thern Africa,  we  purposely  abstain  from  details  that  would 
necessarily  lead  to  repetition.  We  now,  therefore,  conclude 
the  geographical  notices  which  the  history  of  this  portion  of 
the  globe  has  naturally  suggested,  as  connected  more  espe- 
cially with  our  retrospect  of  the  greatness  and  magnificence 
to  which  some  parts  of  it  attained  under  the  Roman  empe- 
rors and  the  earliest  of  the  sultans.  But  the  view  of  its 
actual  condition  would  not  be  complete  did  we  omit  to  make 
a  few  observations  on  the  productive  powers  of  its  soil  and 
climate,  and  on  the  commerce  which  might  enrich  the  inhab- 
itants, and  restore  to  them  in  some  measure  the  blessings  of 
civilization.* 

*  In  our  search  for  materials  we  have  discovered  that  there 
is  in  the  course  of  publication  at  Florence,  a  "  Hrstory  of  the 
Empire  of  Mqrocco,"  in  8vo.,  by  the  Chevaher  Graberg  de  Ham- 
so,  many  years  Swedish  consul  at  Tangier  and  Tripoli.  It  is 
to  be  illustrated  with  an  excellent  map,  the  best  yet  engraved 
of  that  country ;  as  the  author  has  taken  the  outline  of  the  one 
published  by  the  Geographical  Society  of  London,  1831,  and 
has  joined  to  it  all  the  information  he  was  able  to  collect  during 
some  years'  residence  at  Tangier.  Aided  by  a  perfect  knowl- 
edge of  Arabic,  the  Chevalier  Graberg  is  well  known  in  the  lit- 
erary world  as  the  author  of  many  works,  and  especially  as  the 
translator  of  the  celebrated  Arabic  MS.  of  the  historian  Ibnou 
Khaldour,  pubhshed  in  the  third  volume  of  the  Transactions  of 
the  Asiatic  Society  of  London. — Nautical  Magazine,  vol.  ill.) 
p.  663, 


298    COMMERCE  OF  THE  BARBARY  STATES. 


CHAPTER  X. 

Commerce  of  the  Barhary  States. 

Benefits  expected  from  a  Trade  with  Africa — Plan  of  Bonaparte 
and  Talleyrand  to  raise  in  it  colonial  Produce — French  have 
always  maintained  Commercial  Relations  with  Barbary— The 
Fertility  of  Central  Africa — The  Congo  and  Niger — Market 
at  Bengazi — Ancient  Trade  of  the  Genoese — Exports  from 
Tunis — Imports — Commercial  Lists  of  that  Pachalic — Trade 
diminished — Bad  Policy  of  the  Bey — System  of  Licenses — 
Coins,  Weights,  and  Measures  at  Tunis — Trade  of  Algiers 
carried  on  by  the  Corsairs — Imports  resemble  those  of  Tunis 
— Manufactures  and  Exports  — Mode  of  Shipbuilding — Pres- 
ent State  of  Commerce  at  Algiers — Trade  with  France,  Eng- 
land, Italy,  Spain,  and  Tunis — Trade  of  Morocco— Mogadore 
— Total  Value  of  Exports  and  Imports — Intercourse  with 
Negro  Nations— Coins,  Weights,  and  Measures — Physical 
Advantages  of  Northern  Africa — Hopes  of  Improvement. 

The  attention  of  Europe  has  at  various  times  been  excited 
by  the  prospect  of  numerous  benefits  to  be  derived  from  a 
trade  with  Africa,  more  especially  through  the  ports  situated 
on  its  northern  shores.  During  the  long  period  occupied  by 
the  revolutionary  war,  when  the  French  were  excluded  from 
the  West  India  Islands,  and  made  dependant  on  Great  Britain 
for  colonial  produce,  various  schemes  were  agitated  in  the 
councils  of  Bonaparte,  with  the  view  of  supplying  this  defi- 
ciency by  establishing  settlements  in  the  Barbary  States.  It 
is  said  that  Talleyrand  suggested  a  plan  for  raising  on  the 
southern  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  by  employing,  too, 
the  labour  of  the  native  inhabitants,  sugar,  coffee,  cotton,  and 
all  the  other  commodities  which  are  usually  conveyed  to 
Europe,  at  a  great  expense,  from  the  tropical  climates  of 
either  hemisphere.  But  the  toils  and  hazards  of  a  still  loftier 
ambition  withdrew  the  thoughts  of  the  emperor  from  the  col- 
onization of  Africa,  until  it  was  too  late  to  make  the  attempt ; 
and  that  project,  with  others  of  a  less  practicable  nature,  he 
left  to  his  successors,  who,  with  diminished  means  and  per- 


COMMERCE  OF  THE  BARBARY  STATES.  299 


haps  with  less  able  instruments,  have  not  failed  to  realize  it, 
at  least  in  part  * 

Tt  is  beheved  that  the  recommendation  of  Talleyrand  was 
never  entirely  forgoaen,  even  during  the  most  tranquil  times 
of  the  Bourbon  restoration.  No  one  codld  be  blmd  to  the 
hazard  that  the  course  of  events  was  liiiely,  at  no  distant  day, 
to  deprive  all  the  European  nations  of  their  transatlantic 
possessions  ;  and  that  the  luxuries  in  which  the  people  had 
been  long  accustomed  to  indulge,  must  be  sought  in  some 
other  quarter  of  the  globe.  The  history  of  St.  Domingo  gave 
a  lesson  to  the  politicians  of  Paris  too  impressive  to  be 
neglected  ;  and  hence  the  lively  interest  which  they  have 
displayed  in  every  design  which  has  had  for  its  object  the 
occupation  of  Northern  Africa.  These  reasons,  viewed  in 
their  several  bearings,  may  perhaps  justify  the  conclusion, 
founded  on  other  considerations,  that  the  expedition  of  1830 
was  not  altogether  confined  to  the  chastisement  of  the  dey, 
nor  to  the  mere  suppression  of  his  marauding  practices. 

The  French,  as  has  been  already  observed,  had  succeeded, 
by  treaty  or  otherwise,  in  obtaining  certain  privileges  both 
at  Tunis  and  Algiers,  which  for  many  years  gave  them  a 
great  advantage  over  all  competitors  in  the  traffic  of  that 
country.  Their  establishment  at  La  Gala  was  to  them  the 
source  of  much  wealth  and  influence,  and  they  complained 
bitterly  when,  towards  the  end  of  the  last  century,  the  trade 
was  opened  to  other  nations  on  a  more  liberal  principle. 

Nor  can  it  be  concealed  that  commercial  views  have  all 
along  mixed  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  with  those  more  gen- 
erous motives,  which,  from  time  to  time,  have  induced  the 
British  government  to  second  private  adventure  in  the  e.-^pio- 
ration  of  Africa.  The  gold-mines  of  the  mountainous  re- 
gions, and  the  varied  products  of  the  fertile  plains,  have  never 
been  entirely  absent  from  the  imagination  of  those  patriotic 
statesmen  and  enterprising  merchants,  to  whom  is  due  the 
great  honour  of  aiding  the  resolute  discoverers,  who  laboured 
to  -trace  the  course  of  the  Niger  and  the  Congo.  The  vast 
alluvial  districts,  which  stretch  to  un  immense  distance  from 
the  banks  of  these  celebrated  rivers,  and  the  acclivities  which 
bask  in  the  rays  of  an  equatorial  sun,  impressed  the  minds 

*  Geographical,  and  Commercial  View  of  Northern  Centra 
Africa,  by  James  M'Queen,  p.  214, 


300    COMMERCE  OF  THE  BARBARY  STATES. 


of  both  classes  with  a  ftrm  conviction  that,  could  the  elements 
of  civilization  be  once  introduced  into  Africa,  the  productions 
of  Jamaica,  of  Hindostan,  and  even  of  China,  might  be  pro- 
cured at  half  the  usual  expense.  But  our  object,  in  the  brief 
sketch  now  to  be  given  of  the  commerce  of  the  Barbary 
States,  is  not  to  conjecture  the  extent  to  which  it  might  be 
improved,  and  the  numerous  advantages  inseparable  from  its 
advancement  to  the  natives  as  well  as  to  foreigners  :  it  is 
simply  to  present  an  outline  of  the  actual  transactions  which 
take  place  between  the  dealers  of  Tripoli,  Tunis,  Algiers, 
and  Morocco,  and  the  several  kingdoms  of  Europe,  whose 
subjects  are  permitted  to  approach  their  harbours. 

There  is  a  considerable  market  at  Bengazi,  to  which  the 
numerous  Arabs  who  feed  their  flocks  upon  the  Cyrenean 
mountains  conduct  great  droves  of  cattle,  and  bring  vast 
quantities  of  wool,  butter,  ostrich-feathers,  and  honey ;  and 
at  which  they  purchase  fire-arms  and  gunpowder,  Tripoli 
cloaks,  and  earthenware.  A  great  trade  in  cattle  is  still  car- 
ried on  with  Malta,  not  only  for  the  supply  of  that  island, 
but  of  vessels  which  are  fitted  out  for  long  voyages.  The 
ostrich-feathers  would  alone  form  a  most  lucrative  branch  of 
trade,  if  they  could  be  bought  directly  from  the  Bedouins ; 
but  the  Jews  pay  a  large  annual  tribute  to  the  pacha  for  the 
monopoly  of  that  article.  The  skin  of  the  male  bird,  with 
all  the  feathers  attached,  is  sold  by  the  natives  for  about 
thirty  Spanish  dollars,  and  that  of  the  female  for  fifteen  ; 
whHe  the  privileged  purchasers  dispose  of  them  at  Leghorn 
or  Marseilles  for  at  least  three  times  the  original  cost. 

From  the  quantity  of  goods  actually  exported,  an  opinion 
may  be  formed  as  to  the  extent  to  which  commerce  might 
be  carried,  were  the  surrounding  territory  cultivated  with 
industry,  and  the  government  disposed  to  encourage  a  fair 
and  open  traffic.  The  great  trade  which  the  Genoese  main- , 
tained  with  the  Cyrenaica,  in  the  early  times  of  their  repub- 
lic, was  one  of  the  richest  sources  of  its  prosperity ;  and  we 
find  that,  though  their  mercantile  and  political  connexions 
with  this  country  were  subsequent  to  those  formed  with  Ar- 
menia, Syria,  and  other  places  both  in  Asia  Minor  and  in 
Egypt,  they  in  a  short  time  made  such  a  rapid  progress, 
that,  in  the  year  1267,  the  senate  thought  it  expedient  to 
institute  at  Genoa  a  school  for  the  study  of  the  Saracenic 
language.    There  accordu)gly  exists  in  the  public  archives 


COMMERCE  OF  THE  BARBARY  STATES.  301 


of  that  city  the  original  manuscript  of  a  treaty,  dated  1236, 
between  the  republic  and  a  certain  Busacherino,  calling  him- 
self Lord  of  Africa,  by  which  the  subjects  of  the  former  were 
T>ennitted  to  trade  freely  in  any  port,  from  Tripoli  to  the 
oonfines  of  Barca.  It  appears  also  that,  besides  corn,  they 
purchased  lar?e  quantities  of  wool,  ostrich-ffeathers,  oil  for 
their  soap-ma  lufactories,  different  sorts  of  skins,  leather,  wax, 
and  a  variety  of  fruits.  In  this  enumeration,  made  600  years 
ago,  we  find  the  several  productions  of  the  modern  Gyrene ; 
and  so  abundant  was  the  supply  of  wool,  that  the  Genoese 
made  cloth  for  most  of  the  maritime  cities  of  Europe.  Their 
mercantile  speculations,  indeed,  were  at  that  period  supported 
by  the  powerful  navy  which  they  usually  kept  at  sea  ;  and 
being  allies  of  Saladin,  as  well  as  of  the  Eastern  emperors, 
and  at  the  same  time  masters  of  Corsica,  Cyprus,  and  several 
towns  in  Spain,  they  enforced  the  observance  of  treaties  by 
the  presence  of  an  overwhelming  fleet,  and  once  within  the 
very  walls  of  Tripoli  inflicted  ample  punishment  for  the  vio- 
lation of  good  faith.* 

We  find  that  the  exports  from  the  pachalic  of  Tripoli  in 
these  days  are  not  very  different  from  the  merchandise  pro- 
duced in  the  thirteenth  century.  Wool  is  still  specified  as 
an  important  commodity ;  to  which  are  added  senna  and 
other  drugs  ;  madder-roots,  barilla,  hides,  goat  and  sheep^ 
skins  dressed ;  salt,  trona  (an  alkali  resembling  borax),  os- 
trich-feathers, gold-dust,  ivory,  gum,  dried  fruit,  and  dates ; 
lotus-beans,  cassol-venere,  saffron,  bullocks,  sheep,  and  poul- 
try. Of  all  these  articles  the  quality  is  good,  and  the  prices 
are  generally  lower  than  those  of  Algiers  and  Tunis.  The 
duties  imposed  by  his  highness  are  very  fluctuating,  and  usu- 
ally depend  on  the  state  of  commerce  on  the  opposite  shores. 
Cotton  is  said  to  have  been  cultivated  very  successfully  by 
certain  individuals  in  the  regency ;  but,  owing  to  a  want  of 
encouragement,  it  is  not  produced  in  such  quantities  as  to 
form  a  profitable  speculation. 

The  list  of  imports  comprehends  cloths  of  every  colour  and 
description,  sugar,  tea,  coffee,  spices  of  all  sorts,  woollen  and 
Manchester  stuffs,  damasks,  silks,  gold  and  silver  tissues, 
laces,  cochineal,  indigo,  iron,  hardware  of  all  kinds,  small 
wines,  spirits,  capillaire,  gunpowder,  cannon,  muskets,  pis- 


*  Narrative  of  an  Expedition  from  Tripoli,  p.  199. 
C  c 


302    COMMERCE  OF  THE  BARBARY  STATES. 


tols  and  swordblades,  naval  stores,  planks  and  beams  for 
shipbuilding,  looking-glasses,  toys,  cotton  thread,  and  similar 
commodities.  To  those  who  may  be  inclined  to  barter,  a 
ready  market  is  generally  found  at  Tripoli ;  and  the  profits 
may  be  said  to  vary  from  sixty  to  a  hundred  per  cent.,  but 
are  rarely  less  than  the  former.* 

Upon  inspecting  the  commercial  lists  of  Tunis,  we  find  that 
the  kind  of  goods  produced  for  exportation,  as  well  -as  such 
as  are  received  from  the  European  ports,  bear  a  great  re- 
semblance to  those  already  described.  Mr.  M'Gill  procured 
a  copy  of  a  tariflT,  regulating  the  duty  or  customs  on  all  mer- 
chandise imported  by  the  subjects  of  his  Britannic  majesty, 
from  which  we  extract  the  following  articles  : — Cochineal, 
gum-lac,  Pernambuco-wood,  vitriol,  lead,  indigo,  coral,  quick- 
silver, silk,  cloves  and  other  spices,  opium,  musk,  tea,  steel, 
nails,  gun-barrels,  pistols,  silks,  fine  cloths,  muslin,  dimity, 
cambric,  sugar  in  loaf  and  candied,  manna,  liquorice,  cheese, 
herrings,  salmon,  arsenic,  sarsaparilla,  sal-ammoniac,  brim- 
stone, rhubarb,  camphire,  paper,  glass,  planks,  rafters,  and 
bottles.  The  exports  are  confined  to  grain,  oils  of  different 
qualities,  wool,  hides,  wax,  and  a  delicate  species  of  soap.t 

The  French  have  profited  more  than  any  other  European 
kingdom  by  the  trade  of  the  Barbary  States.  Prior  to  the 
late  war,  they  procured  from  Northern  Africa  a  large  supply 
"of  very  valuable  produce, 'both  for  their  own  use  and  that  of 
their  neighbours,  while  they  found  a  lucrative  and  not  incon- 
siderable market  for  their  several  manufactories.  Even  du- 
ring the  progress  of  hostilities,  when  they  were  unable  to  carry- 
on  the  commerce  themselves,  they  regarded  the  merchants 
of  all  other  countries  as  intruders  on  their  proper  domain ; 
and  as  many  natives  of  France  had  settled  m  the  regency, 
they  enjoyed  advantages  which  were  not  conceded  to  the 
Britisli  until  the  necessity  of  opening  new  markets  suggested 
to  the  pacha  a  more  liberal  policy.  But  the  trade  of  Tunis, 
though  still  the  most  important  on  the  African  coast,  has  suf- 
fered a  great  diminution  compared  with  what  it  was  half  a 
century  ago.  Then  it  was  not  uncommon  to  see  hundreds  of 
ships  lying  in  the  roads  and  at  the  Goletta,  also  great  num« 
bers  at  all  her  outports,  loading  the  rich  productions  of  her 

*  Letters  from  the  Mediterranean.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  41,  ^ 
t  Account  of  Tunis,  p.  112. 


COMMERCE  OF  THE  BARBARY  STATES.  303 


soil  to  satisfy  the  wants  of  Spain,  Italy,  and  France.  It  is 
now  rare  to  see  more  than  half  a  dozen  vessels  at  the  capi- 
tal, or  above  one  at  a  time  in  any  of  the  subordinate  har- 
bours ;  and  these,  it  is  added,  are  of  very  small  burden. 

This  unhappy  result  is  in  some  degree  attributable  to  the 
furious  war  which  so  long  wasted  the  powers  of  the  maritime 
kingdoms  of  Europe.  But  the  misunderstanding  between  Al- 
giers and  Tunis  themselves  had  a  still  more  ruinous  effect 
on  the  commerce  of  both  ;  their  mutual  aggressions  by  sea 
and  land  weakened  the  resources  of  each  ;  and  at  length  put 
a  final  stop  to  all  such  intercourse  as  might  have  encouraged 
the  industry  of  their  respective  inhabitants.  The  main  cause, 
however,  of  this  declme,  has  been  traced  to  the  unwise  con- 
duct of  the  bey.  From  an  ill-directed-  love  of  gain,  he  has 
not  only  become  a  merchant  himself,  but  also  permits  the 
whole  of  his  ministers  and  the  people  of  his  court  to  follow 
his  example.  The  product  or  manufacture  which  his  sub- 
jects brought  to  market,  they  could  formerly  sell  to  the  high- 
est bidder  ;  now  it  is  seized  by  the  rapacity  of  these  princely 
dealers,  and  if  paid  for,  which  is  not  always  the  case,  a  price 
is  given  at  the  pleasure  of  tiie  purchaser,  and  not  with  any 
view  to  the  remuneration  of  the  agriculturist  or  the  trades- 
man. 

The  French  ascribe  to  the  opening  of  the  trade  in  1781 
the  decline  of  their  commerce  on  the  coast  of  Barbary.  Be- 
fore the  period  now  mentioned,  none  but  themselves  could 
carry  on  trade  between  that  country  and  the  shores  of 
Africa,  unless  upon  the  payment  of  a  duty  amounting  to  twenty 
per  cent.  ;  and  there  is  no  doubt  that,  since  other  nations 
were  admitted  on  more  liberal  terms,  the  mercantile  transac- 
tions of  the  French  have  decreased  very  considerably.  In 
place  of  twelve  respectable  houses,  which  enjoyed  a  very  lu- 
crative business,  and  also  several  Italian  establishments  of 
some  repute,  Mr.  M'GiU  found  only  two  miserable  agencies, 
both  of  which,  in  the  course  of  a  whole  year,  did  not  buy  and 
sell  as  much  as  one  of  the  former  used  to  do  in  a  month. 
Any  little  commerce  now  pursued  with  the  northern  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean  is  in  the  hands  of  Moors,  Jews,  and 
the  Christian  subjects  of  the  bey,  who  are  sometimes  allowed 
to  enter  into  speculations,  though  viewed  as  rivals  to  his 
highness  and  the  court.* 

*  Account  of  Tunis,  p.  127. 


304    COMMERCE  OF  THE  BAR^RY  STATES. 


But  the  pacha  oppresses  commerce  not  only  by  his  per- 
sonal interference  as  a  dealer,  he  also  paralyzes  its  energies 
by  a  system  of  license,  from  which  he  occasionally  derives 
large  sums  of  iftoney.  The  document  granted  to  the  mer- 
chant is  called  a  teskera,  and. the  price  of  it  is  regulated  by 
the  demand  for  the  commodity  of  which  it  permits  the  expor- 
tation. As  the  will  of  his  highness  is  the  only  rule,  the  ex- 
pense of  procuring  leave  to  ship  any  article  is  not  unfre- 
quently  more  than  equal  to  the  first  cost  of  the  cargo  itself. 
For  example,  if  wheat  be  forty-five  piasters  the  measure,  the 
teskera  may  be  rated  at  fifty  piasters  ;  so  that  the  grain,  when 
put  on  board,  is  more  than  doubled  in  price  ;  and  as  there  is  no 
standard  or  permanent  regulation  on  this  head,  the  foreigner 
who  sails  thither  for  corn  knows  not  the  terms  on  which  his 
purchases  are  to  be  made  until  the  mandate  of  the  bey  has 
been  issued  from  his  palace  of  El  Bardo.  It  is  manifest, 
therefore,  that  until  this  capricious  scheme  of  finance  shall  be 
discontinued,  no  British  merchant  will  be  induced  to  trade 
with  Tunis.* 

Judging  from  the  latest  statement  we  have  seen  on  this 
subject,  there  seems  reason  to  conclude  that  the  interests  of 
commerce  are  now  viewed  through  a  more  favourable  medi- 
um, and  the  range  of  its  operations  is  again  gradually  extend- 
ing. In  1830,  there  entered  the  ports  of  Tunis  194  ships, 
of  the  burden  of  20,747  tons,  exclusive  of  those  engaged  in 
the  trade  with  the  other  African  states  and  Turkey.  It 
would  also  appear  that  the  largest  share  of  their  foreign  trans- 
actions again  centres  at  Marseilles,  as  in  the  times  prior  to 
the  Revolution.  With  England  there  is  very  little  direct  in- 
tercourse, though  there  is  a  good  deal  of  business  carried  on 
through  the  medium  of  Gibraltar  and  Malta.  The  latter  set- 
tlement, indeed,  might  be  amply  supplied  from  that  quarter 
with  most  of  the  necessaries  of  life,  and  even  the  luxuries  of 
the  table,  could  the  Tunisian  government  be  induced  to  estab- 
lish fixed  principles  of  trade,  and  consent  to  a  convenient  re- 
ciprocity. Bullocks,  sheep,  fruit,  and  vegetables,  would  be 
shipped  in  the  greatest  abundance  for  our  garrisons  in  the 
Mediterranean,  if  the  ancient  habits  of  a  barbarian  despotism 
were  succeeded  by  the  enlightened  policy  of  modern  Eu- 
rope, t 

*  Letters  from  the  Mediterranean,  vol.  ii.,  p.  266. 
t  Dictionary,  Practical,  Theoretical,  and  Historical,  of  Com- 
merce, &c.,  by  .J.  R.  M'Culloch,  p.  1197. 


COMMERCE  OF  THE  BARBARY  STATES.  305 


At  Tunis  accounts  are  kept  in  piasters,  fifteen  of  which 
are  equal  to  a  pound  sterling.  Gold,  silver,  and  pearls,  are 
weighed  by  the  ounce  of  eight  meticals ;  sixteen  of  these 
ounces  making  one  of  their  pounds,  or  7,773  English  grains. 
The  principal  commercial  weight  is  the  cantaro,  containing 
100  roLtoli  or  pounds,  being  equivalent  to  111  pounds  avoir- 
dupois. The  chief  corn-measure  is  the  cafiz,- which  is  equal 
to  14j  imperial  bushels.  The  wine-measure  is  the-^ftmil- 
leroUe  of  Marseilles,  equal  to  about  14  of  our  gallons  ;  that 
used  for  oil  is  denominated  metal  or  mettar,  and  contains 
rather  more  than  five  wine-gallons  ;  but  it  is  of  different  di- 
mensions in  different  parts  of  the  country,  aind  is  larger  at 
Susa,  whence  most  of  the  oil  is  exported,  than  at  Tunis.  The 
pic  or  pike  is  the  usual  instrument  for  long-measure  ;  but  it 
varies  when  applied  to  woollen  cloth,  to  silk,  and  to  linen. 
For  the  first  it  is  26.5  English  inches  ;  for  the  second  it  is 
24.8;  and  for  the  last  it  is  only  18.6  Enghsh  inches.* 

As  to  Algiers,  before  it  fell  into  the  occupation  of  the 
French,  its  trade  was  almost  entirely  carried  on  by  the  small 
communities  of  corsairs,  who  contrived  to  combine  wfth 
commerce  a  destructive  war  upon  the  mercantile  navy  of  the 
whole  Mediterranean.  Their  imports,  as  might  be  expected, 
differed  little  from  those  which  are  in  request  at  Tunis  and 
Tripoli ;  consisting  chiefly  of  gold  and  silver  stuffs,  dam- 
asks, cloths,  spices,  tin,  iron,  plated  brass,  lead,  quicksilver, 
cordage,  sail-cloth,  bullets,  cochineal,  linen,  tartar,  alum,  rice, 
sugar,  soap,  copperas,  aloes,  diewoods,  and  vermilion.  In 
return  they  were  ready  to  give — oil,  wax,  hides,  pulse,  and 
corn,  though  not  in  great  quantities,  together  with  the  usual 
commodities  of  rugs,  silk  sashes,  embroidered  handker- 
chiefs, ostrich-feathers,  dates,  and  Christian  slaves,  whose 
ransom  sometimes  paid  for  whole  cargoes.  Some  manufac- 
tures in  silk,  cotton,  wool,  and  leather,  were  carried  on  near 
the  metropolis,  but  chiefly  by  Spaniards  who  had  been  indu- 
ced to  settle  there.  Carpets  were  also  made  in  the  country, 
which,  though  much  inferior  to  those  of  Turkey,  both  in  beau- 
ty and  fineness,  were  preferred  by  the  people  as  being  at  once 
cheaper  and  softer.  It  may  appear  strange,  considering  the 
pursuits  of  the  natives,  that  the  regency  furnished  no  mate- 

*  M'Culloch,  Dictionary,  &c.  Mr.  M'Gill  makes  the  pike  25 
aches.  27  inches  and  19i,  respectively. 

Co  2 


306    COMMERCE  OF  THE  BARBARY  STATES. 


rials  for  shipbuilding.  They  had  neither  ropes,  tar,  sails, 
anchors,  nor  eVen  iron.  When  they  could  procure  enough 
of  new  wood  to  farm  the  main  timbers  of  a  vessel,  they  sup- 
plied the  rest  from  the  materials  of  the  prizes  they  had  ta- 
ken ;  and  in  this  way  they  produced  complete  fast-sailing 
cruisers  from  the  ruins  of  captured  merchantmen. 

In  the  "  Annuaire,"  or  almanac  of  Algiers,  already  quoted, 
we  observe  copiaus  lists  of  importations  and  exportations, 
classed  under  separate  heads,  and  distinguishing  the  coun- 
tries from  which  the  goods  are  brought,  and  whither  they  are 
sent.  They  are  farther  subdivided  into  animal  substances, 
vegetable  substances,  mineral  substances,  and  manufactures. 

The  particulars,  which  it  would  be  tedious  to  enumerate, 
correspond  in  eSect  to  those  already  mentioned,  together 
with  such  articles  of  luxury  as  are  meant  for  the  French 
themselves.  The  amount  of  imports  from  the  conquer- 
ing country  is  stated  at  3,891,189  francs  ;  those  from  the 
Enghsh  possessions  in  the  Mediterranean  are  to  the  value 
of  837,142  francs;  from  Italy,  1,168,157;  from  Spain, 
108,726;  from  Tunis,  112,955;  and  from  Sweden,  consist- 
ing entirely  of  timber,  9,700.  The  whole  sum  is  6,127,870 
francs,  or  255,328'.  sterling.  The  exportations  are  classed  as 
follow  : — ■ 

From  Algiers  to  France,    .   -   .  '.    631,746  francs, 
Enghsh  Possessions,  -  4,412 

Italy,    -   99,335 

Spain,  18,404 

Tunis,  -   .   -   -   >  .  18,782 


772,679  or  32,195/. 

In  the  work  of  Mr.  Jackson  there  are  ample  materials  for 
arriving  at  an  accurate  estimate  of  the  commerce  of  Moroc- 
co, wliich  proves  to  have  been  more  extensive  than  the  neg- 
lected state  of  the  country  and  the  insecure  condition  of  all 
kinds  of  property  would  have  led  a  casual  observer  to  expect. 
The  port  of  Mogadore  is  now  the  principal  inlet  to  European 
produce,  whence  the  capital,  at  the  distance  of  four  days' 
journey,  receives  its  supplies.  The  articles  which  meet  the 
readiest  market  are  cloths  of  various  fabrics,  cambrics,  mus- 
lins, blue  linens,  striped  silk,  velvets,  damask,  sugars  and 
spices  of  all  kinds,  tea,  gums  of  sundry  descriptions,  iron, 
wrought  pewter,  tin,  white-lead,  copper  in  sheets,  mirrow, 


COMMERCE  OF  THE  BARBARY  STATES.  307 


earthenware,  paper,  coral  beads,  Brazil-wood,  and  Mojtican 
dollars. 

The  exports  are  sweet  almonds,  bitter  almonds,  gum-Bar- 
bary,  gum-Soudon,  gum-sandrac,  beeswax,  goat-diins,  oil 
of  olives,  sheep's  wool,  ostrich-feathers,  elephant's  teeth, 
pomegranates,  raisins,  wormseed,  rose-leaves,  glue,  fennel, 
walnuts,  cummin-seeds,  lead-ore,  capers,  carraway-seeds,  and 
similar  productions.  The  total  value  of  imports  for  one  year 
was  151,450/.,  and  of  exports,  after  paying  freight  and  Eu- 
ropean duties,  was  127,679/.  ;  an  amount  which,  though  not 
great,  was  highly  advantageous  to  the  foreign  merchant,  in- 
asmuch as  all  the  goods  conveyed  thither  were  manufactured, 
while  all  the  commodities  received  in  return  consisted  of  raw 
produce.  *" 

But  besides  the  commercial  transactions  now  mentioned, 
Morocco,  like  the  other  Earbary  States,  maintains  a  constant 
intercourse  with  the  negro  nations  beyond  the  Sahara,  whence 
are  brought  gold-dust,  ivory,  and  gums,  more  especially  that 
valuable  species  which  is  known  by  the  name  of  gum-Sene- 
gal or  Soudon. 

At  Mogadore,  accounts  are  kept  in  nutkeels  of  ten  ounces  ; 
the  ounce  being  divided  into  four  blankeels,  and  the  blankeel 
into  twenty-four  fluce.  From  their  proportion  to  the  Spanish 
dollar,  the  blankeel  may  be  valued  at  Id.,  the  ounce  at  4:d., 
and  the  nutkeel  or  ducat  at  3s.  4«Z.  As  to  weights,  again, 
the  commercial  pound  is  generally  regulated  by  the  contents 
of  twenty  Spanish  dollars  ;  and  therefore  100  pounds  Moga- 
dore weight,  or  the  quintal,  are  equal  to  119  pounds  avoirdu- 
pois. But  the  market-pound  for  provisions  is  50  per  cent, 
heavier,  or  one  pound  twelve  and  a  half  ounces  avoirdupois. 
The  corn-measures  are  for  the  most  part  similar  to  those  of 
Spain,  though  there  are  considerable  discrepances.  The 
principal  long-measure  is  the  cubit  or  canna,  equal  to  twenty- 
one  inches  English.! 

Northern  Africa,  as  has  been  already  suggested,  possesses 
so  many  physical  advantages,  and  is  capable  of  so  vast  an 
improvement,  that,  were  it  in  the  hands  of  an  enlightened 
people,  its  commerce  would  soon  rival  that  of  the  ancient 

*  Jackson's  Morocco,  p.  193. 

t  M'CuUoch's  Dictionar}^  of  Conamerce,  p.  805^;  and  Murray's 
Encyclopaedi-'  of  Geography,  p.  1200. 


308    COMMERCE  OF  THE  BARBARY  STATES. 


Phcenicians,  or  even  of  the  most  successful  among  modern 
nations.  The  country,  which  was  once  the  granary  of  Rome, 
might  again  alTord  corn  to  an  immense  population,  and  supply 
with  the  richest  delicacies  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  the 
luxurious  inhabitants  of  Italy,  Spain,  France,  and  England. 
Nor  ought  the  views  of  an  expanding  trade  to  be  limited  to 
the  lands,  fertile  as  they  maybe,  which  stretch  from  the  edge 
of  the  Desert  to  the  shores  of  the  Mediteiranean.  The  re- 
cent discovery  oS  a  river  connecting  the  Atlantic  with  the 
interior  of  the  magnificent  plains  that  compose  the  central 
provinces  of  the  continent,  encourages  hopes  of  civilization, 
knowledge,  and  wealth,  which  at  present  it  might  seem 
romantic  to  express.  The  arts  of  Europe,  and  the  astonish- 
ing command  over  the  elements  of  nature  that  science  con- 
tinues to  confer  upon  educated  man,  will  enable  future 
colonists  to  subdue  the  wildest  portions  of  the  globe,  and  re- 
plenish them,  too,  with  nations  delighting  in  the  enjoyments 
of  social  life,  and  cultivating  those  lofty  studies  which  at 
once  bless  and  adorn  the  intercourse  of  human  beings.* 

*  For  additional  observations  on  the  conunerce  of  the  Barbary 
States,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Pananti's  "  Narrative  of  a  Resi- 
dence in  Algiers,"  chap,  xviii.,  p.  245,  6cc. 


NATURAL  HISTORY. 


309 


CHAPTER  XI. 

Natural  History. 

Additional  Knowledge  of  Africa  supplied  by  the  French — Ge- 
ology— Great  and  Little  Atlas — Structure  of  the  former — 
Succeeded  by  Tertiary  Rocks— Supposed  Extent  of  the 
Greater  Atlas — Cyrenean  Mountains — Reflections  on  the  Des- 
ert—  Relics  of  organized  Bodies —Transition-rocks  —  Lime- 
stone— Talc-slate — Mineral  Species— Secondary  Formation — 
Limestone-shales  —  Marlstones  and  Sandstone  —  Imbedded 
Minerals  —  Extent  of  the  Little  Atlas  —  Metals  —  Tertiary 
Rocks — Calcareous  Sandstone,  Clays,  PorphjTy,  Dolerite, 
Greenstone,  and  Basalt — Blue  Marl  or  London-clay — Or- 
ganic Remains — Volcanic  Rocks — Diluvian  Formation — Soil 
of  Metijah — Postdiluvian  Formation — Uniform  Operation 
of  General  Laws — Zoology— Scorpions  and  Serpents — 
Buska  —  Effah  —  Boah  —  Locusts  —  Quadrupeds — Horreh — 
Aoudad  —  Nimmer  — Heirie — Camel — Desert-horse — Birds — 
Ostrich— El  Rogr— Tibib— El  Hage— Graab  el  Sahara— Ka- 
raburno—Burourou— Botany — List  of  Plants — Hashisha — 
Euphorbium — Silphium — Medicinal  Qualities — Opinions  of 
Delia  Cella  and  Beechey — Reflections. 

The  scientific  world  are  indebted  to  the  recent  successes 
of  the  French  arms  in  Northern  Africa ^for  some  valuable  ad- 
ditions to  the  knowledge  of  nature  in  that  interesting  portion 
of  the  globe.  The  travels  of  Dr.  Shaw  supplied  the  first 
collection  of  facts^  on  which  any  reliance  could  be  placed, 
relative  to  the  minerals,  animals,  and  plants  of  the  Barbary 
States  ;  and  had  he  possessed  a  more  intimate  acquaintance 
with  geology,  his  work  would  probably  have  presented  so 
complete  a  record  of  physical  phenomena  as  to  leave  nothing 
to  be  accomphshed  by  subsequent  writers.  It  is  in  respect 
to  this  latter  department  that  we  are  under  the  greatest  ob- 
ligations to  the  labours  of  M.  Rozet,  the  author  to  whose 
description  of  Algiers  we  have  already  drawn  the  attention 
of  the  reader. 


310 


NATURAL  HISTORY. 


SECTION  I.  GEOLOGY. 

There  appears,  between  the  28th  and  the  36th  degrees  of 
north  latitude — the  limits  to  which  our  observations  are 
meant  to  be  confined — two  separate  groups  of  mountains, 
which  are  usually  distinguished  by  the  names  of  the  Great 
and  the  Little  Atlas.  The  former,  though  it  has  not  been 
minutely  examined  by  the  eye  of  science,  both  from  its 
neight  and  external  aspect,  may  be  confidently  pronounced  to 
belong  to  the  primitive  formation.  We  are,  indeed,  assured 
on  a  good  authority,  that  the  central  and  higher  chains  are 
composed  of  granite,  gneiss,  mica^slate,  and  clay-slate,  while 
the  inferior  ranges  exhibit  layers  of  secondary  limestone  and 
sandstone.  These  deposites  abound  in  organic  remains,  shells, 
corals,  and  even  fishes,  and  are  accordmgly  said  to  be  refer- 
rible  to  the  calcareous  strata  of  the  secondary  class,  extend- 
ing from  the  lias,  or  even  the  magnesian  limestone,  to  chalk 
inclusive.  Resting  upon  these  last,  again,  are  various  of  the 
tertiary  rocks,  among  which,  at  sundry  points,  are  found 
gy-psum  and  salt-springs.  It  is  added,  that  the  secondary  and 
tertiary  formations  are, "in  numerous  places,  disturbed  and 
upraised  by  trap-rocks  of  comparatively  modern  date.* 

The  description  now  given  applies  to  the  whole  country 
northward  of  the  Atlas,  and  agrees  in  substance  with  the 
minuter  details  furnished  by  the  French  engineer.  We  can- 
not, however,  refrain  from  observing,  that  no  information  is 
anywhere  conveyed  as  to"  the  termination,  on  the  east  or  the 
south,  of  that  lofty  mass  to  which  O'lr  inquiries  are  now 
directed.  It  has  been  sometimes  supposed  that  the  Alpine 
irange,  of  which  the  towering  summits  are  seen  from  Morocco, 
extends  to  tlie  banks  of  the  Nile  ;  or,  at  least,  droops  into 
the  Desert  near  the  site  of  the  celebrated  Ammonium,  at  no 
great  distance  from  the  territory  of  Barca.  Others  have 
been  willing  to  trace  the  continuity  of  this  formation  to  the 
neighbourhood  .of  Syene,  where  mountains  of  a  kindred 
©rigin  fiank  the  course  of  the  river,  and  stretch  towards  the 
centre  of  the  continent.  But  it  must  be  admitted,  that  there 
is  no  good  ground  for  either  of  these  conjectures.  Delia 
Cella  is  decidedly  of  opinion,  that  the  hills  of  the  Cyrenaica 

*  Article  by  Professor  Jameson,  in  Murray's  Encyclopaedia 
of  Geography,  p.  1196. 


NATURAL  HISTORY. 


311 


are  not  a  prolongation  of  that  magnificent  chain  which  rises 
upon  the  northern  border  of  the  African  coast,  and  extends, 
in  the  manner  already  described,  from  the  Great  Syrtis  as 
far  as  the  kingdom  of  Morocco.  This,  he  acknowledges, 
does  not  prevent  the  calcareous  constitution  of  iVIount  Atlas 
from  forming  also  the  character  of  the  Cyrenean  mountains. 
The  hills  between  Tunis  and  Algiers  are,  for  the  most  part, 
composed  of  limestone,  and  are  full  of  shells  ;  and  such  is 
the  character  of  the  eminences  observed  by  Hornemann  in 
the  tract  beyond  the  Barcean  Wilderness.  But  the  long 
space,  beginning  at  these  heights  and  terminating  at  the 
granitic  mountains  on  the  Nile,  whence  the  Egyptians  and 
Romans  drew  the  enormous  stones  which  they  employed  in 
adorning  their  public  edifices,  is  covered  with  a  level  ocean 
of  sand.  It  appears,  therefore,  that  the  svstem  of  rocks,  to 
which  the  ridges  of  the  Cyrenaica  belong,  has  no  immediate 
connexion  with  the  Atlas,  properly  so  called,  but  rather  with 
that  smaller  group,  denominated  the  Little  Atlas,  which, 
rising  to  a  considerable  elevation  in  some  parts  of  the  Alge- 
rine  and  Tunisian  States,  attains  a  still  nobler  altitude  in  the 
country  of  the  ancient  Penlapolis,  and  at  length  finally 
declmes  in  the  Catabaihmos  towards  the  land  of  Egypt.  It 
is  also  manifest,  that  the  bases  of  the  mountains  on  this 
pert  of  the  Mediterranean  coast  are  covered,  upon  their 
northern  borders,  with  a  marine  alluvial  soil,  sometimes  de- 
composed and  sandy,  and  sometimes  conglomerated  in  crusts 
of  different  degrees  of  thickness.* 

The  mention  of  the  Desert  cannot  fail  to  remind  the 
reader,  that  the  consideration  of  its  flat  and  dreary  waste 
suggests  one  of  the  most  diflicult  problems  in  geology.  Th 
numerous  relics  of  organized  bodies  which  must  have  been 
produced  in  the  sea,  mixed  with  the  remains  of  forests  which 
probably  at  one  time  adorned  a  variety  of  hills  and  valleys 
now  obliterated  by  sand,  seem  to  afford  evidence  that  the 
present  aspect  of  Central  Africa  is  not  the  original  one,  but 
ought  to  be  ascribed  to  some  dreadful  catastrophe,  of  which 
it  perpetuates  the  eflects.  "  Africa,"  says  a  late  traveller, 
*'  has  evidently  been  washed^  across."  It  is  therefore,  he 
presumes,  reasonable  to  conclude,  that  the  weary  plains  in 
the  interior,  south  of  the  Atlantic  range,  may  have  been  thus 


Narrative,  p.  166. 


312 


NATURAL  HISTORY. 


overwhelmed,  and  that  a  submerged  country,  once  fertilized 
by  the  streams  which  descend  from  the  southern  skirts  of 
Atlas,  is  now  covered  by  sand  possessing  a  depth  not  to  be 
ascertained.* 

But,  leaving  these  general  reflections,  which  partake  too 
much  of  conjecture  to  recommend  to  our  beUef  any  infer- 
ences founded  upon  them,  we  proceed  to  give  an  outline  of 
the  geological  structure  of  those  sections  of  the  country 
which  have  been  actually  examined.  We  find,  then,  that 
the  following  formations  have  been  distinctly  ascertained  : 
the  transition  ;  the  secondary  ;  the  tertiary  ;  the  volcanic  ; 
the  alluvial  or  diluvian  ;  to  which  may  be  added  those  minor 
results  springing  from  causes  still  in  operation,  as  connected 
with  the  agency  of  the  sea,  rivers,  and  the  action  of  the 
atmosphere. 

■  1.  The  transition-rocks  are  observed  on  the  shore  near 
Algiers,  where  the  tertiary  lime  and  sandsfone  are  seen  re- 
posing on  talc-slate,  similar  to  that  which  is  found  on  the 
coast  of  France,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Toulon.  This 
slate  forms  the  principal  mass  of  the  mountain  called  Bou 
Zarfe,  and  of  the  hill  on  which  the  capital  is  built,  extending 
as  far  as  Cape  Matafuz.  It  presents  itself  in  strata  very 
much  inclined  to  the  horizon  and  dipping  towards  the  south, 
but  never  in  beds  ;  and  in  some  parts  it  is  seen  passing  into 
a  well-characterized  mica-schist ;  while  in  others  the  feldspar 
predominates  so  entirely  as  to  give  rise  to  a  distinct  species 
of  gneiss.  There  are  also  certain  strata  of  limestone  subordi- 
nate to  the  slate,  having  a  gray  colour  and  a  saccharoid  ap- 
pearance. This  rock  often  becomes  schistose,  and  then  it 
passes  by  an  easy  change  into  slate.  Throughout  these 
compound  masses  are  discovered  veins  of  quartz,  portions 
of  iron-pyrites,  and  lead-glance.  At  Cape  Matafuz,  where 
the  talc-slate  passes  into  mica-slate,  there  are  still  beds  of 
limestone  placed  at  a  great  inchnation,  denoting  the  extent 
of  the  power  by  which  they  have  been  elevated  from  their 
horizontal  posture. 

On  the  same  line  of  coast,  the  talc-schist,  by  insensible 
degrees,  passes  into  a  brown  mica -slate  containing  thin  lay- 
ers of  white  feldspar,  some  of  which,,  by  an  additional  quantity 
of  mica>  become  gneiss — a  result  which  is  also  produced 


♦  Keatinge's  Travels  in  Africa  ,  vol.  i,,  p.  215. 


NATURAL  HISTORY. 


313 


when  the  mica-slate,  in  its  turn,  combines  with  feldspar. 
Thus,  gneiss  appears  in  a  variety  of  instances  as  the  princi- 
pal member  of  the  formation,  being  distinguished  by  an  ex- 
cess of  feldspar,  usually  white  and  of  a  large  leaf  or  lamina. 
The  stratification  is  very  irregular,  and  presents  unequivocal 
marks  of  a  violent  action,  occasioned,  it  is  probable,  by  the 
insertion  of  some  subordinate  rocks.  It  is -not  particularly 
rich  in  the  mineral  species  which  are  diffused  in  it ;  the 
chief  of  which  are  white  and  smoke-coloured  quartz,  pure 
feldspar,  crystals  of  tourmaline,  and  some  fine  specimens  of 
white  mica.  The  gneiss  does  not  afford  any  traces  of  or- 
ganic remains  ;  and  it  is  remarked  that,  though  the  mountains 
composed  of  it  are  less  ^^evated  than  those  of  slate,  the 
form  of  both  is  almost  entirely  the  same. 

2.  The  secondary  formation  in  the  Algerine  territory 
seems  to  reduce  itself  chiefly  to  what  is  called  the  lias,  mem- 
ber, comprehending  limestone-shales,  marlstones,  and  some 
sandstones,  which  occur  along  with  them.  ~  The  marls  are 
sometimes  very  bituminous,  and  contain  beds  of  lignite  or 
brown  coal,  and  also  fossil-shells,  and  occasionally  beds  of 
gypsum,  fossil-wood,  with  silicious  impressions  of  ferns, 
cycadaceae,  and  fuci.  The  animal  remains  are  numerous 
and  interesting,  comprising  bones  and  skeletons  of  extinct 
tribes,  such  as  the  genera  geosaurus,  ichthyosaurus,  and 
plesiosaurus.  In  particular,  the  lias  contains  an  immense 
quantity  of  fossil-shells,  of  which  the  predominating  one  is 
the  Gryphaa  arcuata ;  and  hence  the  marlstones  of  this 
formation  have  occasionally  been  named  gryphite  lime- 
stones.* 

The  Little  Atlas,  which  js  said  to  extend  six  hundred 
miles  in  length  and  about  eight  in  breadth,  is  described  as 
consisting  principally  of  slaty  marl,  alternating  with  strata  of 
calcareous  matter.  The  former,  which  appears  to  prevail,  is 
quite  the  same  as  that  found  in  the  lias-beds  of  Europe,  and 
is  associated  with  calcareous  sandstone,  and  sometimes  <vith 
a  whitish  rock,  extremely  hard,  styled  a  calcariferous  silex. 
In  the  Mountains  of  Beni  Sala,  these  marls  are  intersected 
by  veins  of  white  quartz  ;  and  near  the  summit  they  are  seen 
gradually  becoming  harder,  till  they  pass  into  a  slate  resem- 
bling that  of  the  transition  series,  and  which  nn  longer  efTer- 

*  Jameson,  in  Murray's  Encyclopaedia  of  Geography,  p.  223. 
Dd 


vesces  iu  nitric  acid.  The  organic  remains  are  not  so  abun- 
dant in  the  African  as  in  the  European  has  ;  the  specimens 
mentioned  by  M.  Rozet  not  exceeding  some  fragments  of 
oysters,  some  pectenes,  belemnites,  a  small  ammonite,  but 
not  a  single  vegetable  impression.  Copper  appears  in  con- 
siderable quantities,  and  rnigrit  in  some  places  be  wrought  to 
advantage  ;  but  no  attempt  towards  such  an  object  could  be 
uiade  in  the  midst  of  a  desert  country,  and  exposed  to  the 
continued  assault  of  the  most  cruel  and  faithless  hordes  oa 
the  face  of  the  earth.  ^ 

3.  In  regular  succession,  the  tertiary  rocks  rest  upon  the 
chalk  or  uppermost  member  of  the  secondary  class ;  and 
though,  generally  speaking,  .-they  are  looser  in  texture  than 
the  foregoing,  they  are,  in  some  cases,  not  less  compact. 
They  abound  in  fossil  remains  of  the  animal  and  vegetable 
kingdoms,  of  which  the  genera  ate  commonly  the  same  with 
those  now  in  existence,  though  many  of  the  species  are  dif- 
ferent. In  this  division  of  the  mineral  world  are  included 
some  clays,  calcareous  sandstones,  and  trap-rocks,  such  as 
porphyry,  dolerite,  greenstone,  and  ba,salt.  To  these  may 
be  added,  as  it  respects  Africa,  beds  of  sand  morfe  or  less  im- 
pregnated with  iron,  which  alternate  with  sandstone,  or  a 
ferruginous  hmestone,  known  to  the.  French  as  "  calcaire 
grossier,"  and  in  England  by  the  familiar  appellation  of  Lon- 
don-clay. In  the  vicinity  of  the  Little  Atlas  this  aggrega- 
tion of  beds  rests  upon  a  .blue  marl  z  little  paler  than  that 
which  belongs  to  the  lias  formation.  On  the  southern  side 
of  the  range,  especially,  there  appears  an  immense  group  ot 
hills,  extending  to  a  greg.t  distance  in  all  directions,  and  some 
of  them  rising  nearly  to  the  height  of  5,000  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea  ;  all  of  which  are  composed  of  the  rocks  now 
described,  constituting  a  formation  quite  similar  to  that  found 
in  Italy  on  either  declivity  of  the  Apennines. 

The  blue  marl  is  covered  by  a  great  depth  of  calcareous 
sandstone,  as  also  of  London-clay,  with  corals,  alternating 
with  sand,  both  yellow  and  red.  The  sandstone,  also,  when 
much  impregnated  with  iron,  assumes  the  same  colour.  The 
beds  which  compose  it  incline  to  the  north  at  an  angle  which 
never  exceeds  20^  ;  they  are  even  sometimes  quite  horizon- 
tal. This  tertiary  formation  contains  an  immense  quantity 
of  large  oysters — ostria  elongata — entirely  identical  with 
those  which  are  found  in  the  corresponding  position  m 


Natural  history. 


315 


Provence  and  Italy.  No  fragment,  however,  has  been  dis- 
covered of  the  bones  of  fish  or  quadrupeds.  The  limestone, 
■which  is  frequently  compact,  presents  in  its  composition  a 
great  number  of  corals,  as  is  the  case  in  Austria  and  Hun- 
gary. The  oysters  lie  in  the  mass  of  sandstone,  but  more 
particularly  in  the  sand  itself,  which  is  interposed  between  the 
beds.  They  are  found  grouped  together,  several  in  one 
place,  and  most  of  them  retain  their  two  valves  or  shells — a 
proof  that  they  are  still  in  the  place  in  .which  they  were  when 
alive,  however  distant  the  period. 

All  the  country  that  the  Trench  army  have  hitherto  passed 
over  southward  of  the  Little  Atlas,  consists  of  this  tertiary 
formation  ;  and,  in  judging  by  analogy  from  the  form  of  the 
hills  as  they  appeared  to  the  eye  at  a  distance,  it  was  con- 
cluded that  the  same  rocks  prevail  to  a  great  extent,  both 
towards  the  east  and  the  west,  comprehending  all  the  basins 
invested  by  the  several  chains  of  ifiountains  to  the  border  of 
the  Sahara.  The  sands  of  that  desert,  it  is  conjectured  by 
M.  Rozet,  are  nothing  different  from  the  sand  which  is  some- 
times found  in  the  higher  parts  of  this  formation,  and  beneath 
which  the  sandstone  and  lime  exist  in  horizontal  beds  cover- 
ing the  blue  marl.  Hence,  it  is  not  improbable,  that  a  similar 
succession  obtains  throughout  the  whole  of  the  dreary  waste 
which  separates  Barbary  from  the  regions  of  the  Senegal  and 
Niger. 

It  is  a  little  remarkable,  that  tKough  the  rocks  which  skirt 
the  northern  edge  of  the  great  plain  of  the  Metijah  are  the 
same,  and  arranged  in  the  same  order  with  those  on  the 
south  side  of  the  Little  Atlas,  the  inclination,  as  wefl  as  the 
fossil  remains,  are  different.  These  last  '  are  much  more 
abundant  in  the  hills  near  the  coast,  and  the  shellfish  are- 
often  seen  distinguished  by  famiUes  ;  Ci)nsisting  us\]ally  of 
the  pectenes,  the  gryphites — ostria  navicularis — large  oysters, 
but  very  different  from  those  of  the  southern  range,  terebra- 
tiili,  echhiites,  and  several  polypi. 

4.  Of  volcanic  rocks  there  is  no  trace  in  all  the  portion  of 
the  Minor  Atlas  visited  by  the  enterprising'Frenchman,  nor 
in  any  part  l)f  the  great  plain  already  so  often  mentioned. 
It  was  only  at  Cape  Matafuz,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
fort,  that  trachyte  was  observed  as  having  issued  from  under 
the  tertiary  formation.  A  very  curious  fact  was  also  noticed 
in  the  same  place.    All  the  beds  of  Ihnestone  which  repose 


316 


NATURAL  HISTORY. 


upon  the  blue  marl  ate  perfectly  horizontal ;  but  at  the  place 
where  the  porphyry  has  forced  its  way  through  the  strata 
there  is  a  depression,  and  the  beds  are  there  found  inclined 
to  the  horizon  at  an  angle  of  from  15°  to  20°.  The  trachyte 
of  Matafuz  is  a  petro-silicious  rock,  enclosing  small  crystals 
of  white  feldspar,  with  minute  plates  of,brown  mica,  and  we 
need  not  add  that  it  belongs  to  the  family  of  the  porphyries. 
Small  fragments  of  porous  lava  were  picked  up,  but  could 
not  be  traced  to  their  site.  There  is  hardly  any  doubt  that 
basaltic  formations  will  be  detected  at  no  great  distance  from 
the  spot,  so  soon  as  the  zeal  of  science  can  be  separated 
with  impunity  from  the  vigilance  of  military  life,  and  the  stu- 
dent of  nature  can  venture  to  go  abroad  without  the  jprotec- 
tion  of  a  regular  escort  carrying  ball-cartridge. 

5.  The  diluvian  formation,  as  the  phrase  is  used  by  French 
authors,  seems  to  denote  those  changes  on  the  face  of  the 
earth  produced  by  a  great  rush  of  waters,  whether  that  re- 
corded in  Sacred  Writ,  or  any  subsequent  flood  which  may 
have  since  affected  particular  localities.  The  whole  soil  of 
the  plain  of  Metijah  is  said  to  consist  of  alluvial  matter,  usu- 
ally displayed  in  horizontal  beds. of  an  argillaceous  marl,  and 
of  rolled  pebbles,  greatly  water-worn,  but  among  which  are 
never  found  large  blocks  of  stone.  Everywhere  are  seen 
the  deserted  beds  of  spacious  rivers,  the  steep  banks  of  which 
afford  a  good  opportunity  for  studying  the  geognostic  consti- 
tution of  the  country.  Copious  streams  must  formerly  have 
flowed  along  these  channels,  and  given  to  the  adjoining  dis- 
tricts the  geological  character  they  still  retain.  The  nature 
of  the  marl,  it  is  observed,  is  nearly  the  same  throughout, 
but  that  of  the  pebbles  often  changes,  both  in  quality  and 
magnitude.  Near  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  the  hollows, 
once  occupied  by  torrents,  display  large  masses  of  quartz, 
black  and  gray  limestone,  and  nujnerous  portions  of  slate, 
which  must  have  been  brought  down  by  the  weight  of  water 
acting  on  the  declivities. 

The  bed  of  vegetable  earth,  still  in  many  places  several 
feet  thick,  is  always  composed  of  the  alluvial  marl,  which  is 
compact  in  its  structure,  and  not  easily  penetrated  by  water  ; 
and  hence  the  origin  of  the  springs  and  rivulets  that  are  oc- 
casionally observed  while  crossing  the  plain.  The  level  of 
the  ground,  too,  is  perceived  to  rise  gradually  as  the  travel- 
ler approaches  the  Atlas,    At  Mazafran  the  soil  is  only  sev- 


NATURAL  HISTORY. 


cnty  feet  above  the  sea,  whereas  fifteen  miles  farther  south  it 
has  attained  the  elevation  of  520  feet.  We  have  observed, 
in  the  works  of  Delia  Cella  and  M.  Rozet,  mention  made  of 
red  marl  and  red  sand,  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  the  coast. 
The  former  collected  a  quantity  near  ApoUonia,  the  singular 
colour  of  which,  after  a  close  examination,  he  found  to  pro- 
ceed from  a  verv  minute  species  of  coral,  dispersed  atnong 
the  sand  in  such  abundance  as  to  constitute  about  one  third 
of  its  bulk.  Having  put  half  an  ounce  of  it  into  nitric  acid, 
it  almost  entirely  disappeared  ;  differing  in  this  respect  from 
the  common  sand  of  the  Desert,  which  was  not  acted  upon 
by  that  liquid  in  the  slightest  degree.  It  is  not  improbable 
that  the  red  marl  at  Algiers  may  have  acquired  its  colour  in  a 
similar  way. — Small  beds  of  travertin  were  seen  on  the  sides 
of  the  mountains  near  the  sea,  evidently  formed  by  filtration 
from  the  superior  strata. 

6.  We  find,  moreover,  a  postdiluvian  formation  recorded 
by  the  staff-officer,  which  is  meant  to  comprehend  those 
changes  that  are  bJ'O'ight  to  pass  by  existing  causes  ;  namely, 
the  action  of  the  wind  in  raising  mounds  of  sand  along  the 
shore;  the  formation  of  new  land  at  the  mouths  of  rivers; 
the  disemboguement  of  lakes  ;  and  the  disintegration  of 
rocks.  But  the  country  has  not  yet  been  subjected  to  an  ex- 
amination sufficiently  minute  to  justify  any  conclusions  as  to 
any  recent  modification  of  its  surface  in  the  respects  now 
mentioned. 

M.  Rozet  sees  reason  to  believe  that  all  the  igneous  rocks 
he  has  described,  the  granites,  porphyries,  and  dolomites,  are 
posterior  to  the  tertiary  formation — a  fact  not  quite  so  well 
confirmed  as  its  importance,  viewed  in  a  geological  sense, 
would  require.  He  expresses,  too,  a  degree  of  astonishment 
with  which  few  of  his  readers  will  sympathize,  at  finding 
near  Oran  dolerites — a  compound  of  augite  and  feldspar — 
where  he  expected  porphyry.  As  both,  according  to  the  re- 
ceived system  of  geology,  are  of  Plutonian  origin,  it  is  clearly 
impossible  to  determine,  in  any  particular  case,  whifch  of  the 
two  is  the  more  likely  to  present  itself,  as  the  agent  erpployed 
by  nature  to  elevate  the  superincumbent  strata.* 

The  knowledge  we  now  possess  of  the  mineralogical 
structure  of  Northern  Africa,  limited  and  imperfect  as  it  un- 


*  Voynge  dans  la  R^gence  d' Alger,  tome  i.,  p.  21-TS. 
D  d  3 


318 


NATURAL  HISTORY. 


questionably  is,  affords  another  proof  of  the  universal  as  weH 
as  the  uniform  operation  of  those  laws  under  which  the  crust 
of  the  earth  has  assumed  its  present  appearance.  The  shore 
at  Algiers,  the  heights  of  the  Minor  Atlas,  the  plain  of  Meti- 
jah,  and  the  Cyrenean  hills,  exhibit  the  same  phenomena  to 
which  the  eye  of  the  geologist  has  been  long  accustomed  in 
the  best-known  countries  of  Europe.  In  fact,  there  is  a 
great  resemblance  between  the  districts  now  occupied  by  the 
French' — especially  if  restricted  to  the  tertiary  formation — 
and  the  lands  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Paris  and  London. 
It  is,  indeed,  a  remark  as  old  as  the  days  of  Dr.  Shaw,  that 
the  stone  used  in  the  ancient  edifices  of  Julia  Caesarea,  Sitifi, 
Cirta,  and  Carthage,  was  not  much  different  either  in  tex- 
ture or  colour  from  the  HedJington  stone  in  the  vicinity  of 
Oxford — a  mixture  of  calcareous  and  silicious  substances, 
which,  in  some  cases,  approaches  to  marl,  and  even  to 
chalk.* 

We  learn  from  the  same  author,  that  near  Algiers  and 
Bona,  the  schistose  talc  lies  immediately  upon  the  surface, 
and  is  often  very  beautifully  gilded  with  gold-like  mica,  while 
the  sparry  matter  which  fills  up  the  fissures  glitter  with 
spangles  imitating  silver.  Delia  Cella  observed  a  similar 
appearance  m  the  eastern  parts  of  the  Tripoline  territory, 
occasioned  by  a  combination  of  iron-pyrites  with  mica,  talc, 
and  crystallized  limestone. 

As  to  metals,  iron' and  lead  are  the  only  ones  that  have 
been  hitherto  discovered,  if  we  except  the  supposed  mines  of 
gold  and  silver  in  the  empire  of  Morocco.  The  iron  is  said 
to  be  good,  though  not  abundant ;  and  being  wrought  by  the 
Kabyles  in  the  mountainous  districts  of  Bujeya,  was  wont  to 
be  conveyed  to  Algiers  in  small  short  bars.  The  lead-ores 
are  in  general  very  rich  ;  and,  provided  the  works  were  un- 
der a  better  regulation,  they  would  produce  a  great  quantity 
of  metal.  We  have  already  suggested,  that  in  the  hilly 
parts  of  the  country  there  are  very  distinct  indications  of  cop- 
per— a  commodity  which  is  highly  prized  in  the  regency  of 
Algiers,  and  will^ne  day,  there  can  be  no  doubt,  prove  to  it 
a  soijrce  of  much  weialth. 

♦  Travels  in  Barbary,  vol.  i.,  p., 279. 


NATURAL  HISTORY. 


SECTION  II.  ZOOLOGY. 

It  was  a  maxim  among  the  ancients,  originating  in  their 
Ignorance  of  nature,  and  perpetuated  by  their  behef  in  spon- 
taneous generation,  that  "  Africa  was  always  producing  some 
new  monster."  But  a  closer  survey  has  proved  that  the 
southern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  exhibit  no  Hving  crea- 
tures which  may  not  be  found  in  every  other  part  of  the 
world  where  there  are  the  same  qualities  of  soil  and  climate. 

The  naturalist  who  proceeds  systematically  would  arrange 
his  observations  under  separate  heads,  beginning  with  the 
simplest  conformations,  and  advancing  gradually  to  those 
which  are  more  complex.  At  the  opening  of  his  path  he 
would  find  zoophiles,  mollusca,  including  cephalopodes,  and 
other  species  ;  after  which  he  would  direct  his  attention  to 
fishes,  to  frogs,  to  reptiles,  to  the  Crustacea,  or  land-crabs 
and  turtles,  and  finally  to  insects.  Having  afterward  ex- 
hausted ornithology,  he  would  in  due  time  arrive  at  the 
Mammalia — a  class  which  embraces  nearly  all  descriptions  of 
quadrupeds,  and  even  man  himself,  the  lord  of  this  province 
of  the  visible  creation. 

But  our  scheme  is  much  more  limited,  extending  no  farther 
than  is  implied  in  the  desire  to  lay  before  our  readers  Such  a 
view  as  may  prove  intelligible  to  them  all,  of  the  several  ani- 
mals which  are  either  peculiar  to  Africa,  or  appear  in  that 
region  invested  with  quahties  not  common  elsewhere.  Not 
^nduig,  for  example,  that  the  zoophiles,  the  mollusca,  or  the 
Crustacea  of  the  Barbary  States,  are  in  any  material  respects 
difierent  from  those  which  occur  in  every^  kingdom  of  iTurope, 
we  shall  refrain  from  copying  long  lists  of  names  descriptive 
of  species  belonging  to  every  continent,  and  possessing  no 
interest  except  in  the  estimation  of  a  scientific-  zoologist. 

Africa  has  long  been  celebrated  for  scorpions  and  serpents  ; 
and  although  none  are  now  to  be  found  so  extremely  formi- 
dable as  that  enormous  specimen  which  impeded  the  progress 
of  a  Roman  army,  there  are  some  sufficiently  large  and  de- 
structive to  inspire  a  great  degree  of  terror.  Of  the  lattei 
there  are  only  two  species  understood  to  be  very  venomous  , 
the  one  of  a  black  colour,  about  seven  or  eight  feet  long 
with  a  little  head,  which  it  expands  frequently  to  fc  iir  timer 
its  ordinary  size  when  about  to  attack  any  objec  t.  This 
serpent  is  called  huska,  and  is  the  only  one  that  wi  assail  a 


320 


NATURAL  HISTORY. 


passenger  unprovoked  ;  in  doing  which  it  coils  itself  up,  and 
darts  to  a  great  distance  by  the  elasticity  of  its  body  and  tail. 
The  wound  inflicted  by  the  bite  is  small ;  but  the  surround- 
ing part  immediately  turns  black,  and  the  sufferer  expires  in 
a  very  short  time.  El  effah  is  the  name  of  the  other  serpent, 
remarkable  also  for  its  quick  and  penetrating  poison.  It  is 
about  two  feet  long,  and  as  thick  as  a  man's  arm,  beautifully 
spotted  with  veilow  and  brown,  and  sprinkled  all  over  with 
black  specks,  similar  to  the  horn-nosed  snake.  In  the  desert 
of  Suz  their  holes  are  so  numerous,  that  it  is  difficult  for  a 
horse  to  pass  over  them  without  stumbling. 

But  the  boah,  or  snake  of  the  Sahara,  is  the  most  enormous 
of  these  monsters,  being  from  twenty  to  eighty  feet  long,  and 
as  thick  as  a  man's  body.  It  is  not  strictly  poisonous,  though 
in  its  ravages  it  is  not  less  destructive  to  the  other  inhabitants 
of  the  waste.  So  swift  is  its  motion,  that  the  Arab  describes 
it  as  setting  fire  to  the  Desert  by  the  extieme  velocity  of  its 
course  ;  and  hence  there  is  na  possibility  of  escapmg.  It 
will  twist  itself  round  an  ox,  crush  the  bones,  and  swallow  it 
gradually  ;  after  which  it  lies  torpid  on  the  ground  several 
davs,  unable  to  proceed  until  the  process  of  digestion  be  com- 
pleted. A  few  years  ago,  two  of  these  reptiles  stationed 
themselves  near  the  road  from  Morocco  to  Terodant ;  one 
of  thejTi  was  killed  ;  the  other  remained  there  several  days, 
and  prevented  travellers  from  passing  forward.  As  neither 
was  mere  than  twenty  feet  in  length,  it  was  concluded  that 
they  were  both  young. 

Most  of  the  other  serpents  are  harmless,  and  may  be 
tamed  ;  and  in  some  towns  there  are  few  houses  without 
one;  which  may  be  seen  moving  along  the  roof  of  the  apart- 
ment. -They  are  never  molested  by  the  family,  who  would 
not  hurt  them  on  any  consideration,  believing  that  they  bring 
a  blessing  on  the  household.  On  their  part,  too,  they  are 
extremely  susceptible  of  offence,  and  alive  to  the  slightest 
appearance  of  injury  ;  on  which  accounf,  it  is  thought  im- 
prudent to  incur  their  displeasure. 

The  scorpion  abounds  very  much  in  some  parts  of  Barbary, 
particularly  among  stones  and  old  houses.  It  is  generally 
about  two  inches  in  length,  and  in  its  colour  vanes  from 
yellow  to  brown,  and  even  to  black.  The  wound  inflicted  by 
it  is  followed  by  a  feeling  of  intense  cold,  and  very  often  ter- 
minates in  death.    During  the  summer,  we  are  informed,  the 


NA.TURAL  HISTORY. 


321 


city  of  Morocco  is  so  infested  with  this  venomous  reptile, 
that  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  them  in  the  beds.  As  the 
flesh  of  the  creature  itself,  applied  to  the  part  of  the  body 
which  has  been  stung,  effects  a  certain  cure,  most  families 
keep  a  bottle  of  scorpions  infused  in  olive  oil ;  it  being  ascer- 
tained that  a  dead  one  is  not  less  efficacious  as  a  remedy, 
than  if  the  individual  which  had  inflicted  the  wound  were  it- 
self killed  and  used  for  the  purpose. 

There  is  no  country  in  the  world  which  suffers  more  than 
Northern  Africa  from  the  desolation  committed  by  the  locust. 
The  production  of  this  winged  plague  is  one  of  the  secrets 
of  nature  ;  for,  after  an  interval  of  many  years,  during  which 
it  is  not  seen,  it  issues  from  the  Desert  in  such  numbers  as 
not  only  to  destroy  all  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  but  even  to 
cover  the  surface  of  the  ground.  In  Barbary  they  are  always 
observed  to  come  from  the  south,  the  direction  of  the  Sahara, 
whereas  in  Palestine  they  proceed  from  the  east — a  fact 
which  establishes  their  origin  in  connexion  with  the  Wilder- 
ness, the  vast  expanse  of  sandy  waste  which  constitutes  the 
boundary  of  both  regions.  They  are  understood  to  have  a 
government  among  themselves  similar  to  the  ants  and  bees  ; 
when  the  Sultan  Jeraad,  or  King  of  the  Locusts,  rises  into 
the  air,  the  whole  body  follow  him  ;  and  in  their  course  they 
proceed  as  regularly  as  a  disciplined  army  on  its  march,  nor 
is  a  single  one  seen  either  remaining  behind  or  going  a  dif- 
ferent way  from  the  rest.  When  young,  this  insect  is  green; 
but  as  it  grows  it  assumes  first  a  yellow  colour,  and  then  be- 
comes black.  The  sultan  is  said  to  be  larger  and  more  beau- 
tifully coloured  than  the  rest,  though  it  is  not  easy  to  procure 
8  sight  of  him. 

At  certain  seasons  the  locust  is  esteemed  a  great  delicacy, 
and  dishes  of  them  are  generally  served  up  at  the  repasts  of 
the  principal  families.  The  usual  mode  of  cooking  is  to  boil 
them  in  water  half  an  hour,  then  sprinkle  them  with  salt  and 
pepper,  and  fry  them,  adding  a  little  vinegar :  the  head,  legs, 
and  wings  are  thrown  away,  the  rest  of  the  body  is  eaten,  and 
resembles  the  taste  of  prawns. 

Of  quadrupeds,  we  shall  only  mention  a  few  of  the  more 
striking  ;  purposely  omitting  those  which  are  common  to  the 
different  parts  of  Africa,  such  as  the  red  fox,  the  hyena,  the 
gazelle,  the  horse,  and  the  camel. 

The  homk  is  greatly  esteemed,  among  the  Arabs  for  its 


322 


NATrRAL  HISTORY. 


beauty  and  cleanliness,  and  is  accounted  the  prince  of  ani- 
mals. It  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  Sahara,  and  is  never  found 
to  the  north  of  the  river  Su'z.  In  form  and  size,  it  is  some- 
what similar  to  the  gazelle  ;  the  colour  of  its  back  and  head  is 
of  a  light  red,  inclining  to  that  of  a  fawn  ;  while  the  belly  is  of 
a  white  so  beautiful  and  delicate,  that  its  brilliancy  affects  the 
eyes  in  a  manner  bearing  some  resemblance  to  the  sensation 
produced  in  them  by  looking  steadfastly  at  fine  scarlet.  Ac- 
cording to  the  belief  of  the  natives  it  never  lies  down,  lest  it 
should  impair  the  splendour  of  its  fur,  of  the  elegance  of 
which  it  appears  fully  conscious  ;  and  as  it  is  held  the  emblem 
of  purity,  its  skin  is  preferred  by  the  rich  to  all  other  substan- 
ces when  used  as  a  cushion  or  mat  on  which  to  prostrate 
themselves  at  prayer. 

The  aoudad  is  an  animal  which  is  never  found  except 
among  the  cliffs  or  forests  of  Mount  Atlas,  ■  southward  of 
Morocco  and  the  Lower  Suz.  It  sometimes,  indeed,  descends 
to  the  rivers  to  drink,  where  it  is  seen  throwing  itself  from 
lofty  precipices  into  the  plain  below,  when  it  generally  alights 
on  its  horns  or  shoulders.  None  of  them  have  ever  been 
taken  alive,  being  so  wild  that  it  is  not  possible  to  approach 
them  without  great  danger.  In  size  and  colour- it  is  not  un- 
like a  calf,  but  has  a  beautiful  long  mane  or  beard  flowing 
from  the  lower  part  of  the  neck  ;  it  has  strong  teeth,  and 
curved  horns  about  twelve  inches  in  length. 

The  nimmer  is  closely  related  to  the  leopard  ;  being  spot- 
ted rather  than  striped,  and  in  size  resembles  the  royal  tiger 
of  Asia.  It  is  remarkable  for  strength  and  agility  ;  putting  to 
a  severe  task  all  the  ingenuity  and  courage  of  the  African 
hunters.  When  roused  to  anger,  he  is  considered  more 
dangerous  than  the  lion  ;  because  he  is  not  only  more  active, 
but  climbs  trees  afier  his  assailants,  and  scales  the  walls 
which  they  may  have  ascended. 

The  sihsih  appear^  to  be  of  an  intermediate  species  between 
the  rat  and  the  squirrel,  being  somewhat  similar  to  the  ich- 
neumon in  form,  though  not  half  its  size.  It  inhabits  the 
Atlas,  and  lives  in  holes  among  the  stones  and  caverns  of 
the  mountains  :  it  has  brown  hair,  and  a  beautiful  tail  about 
the  length  ef  its  whole  body.  The  Arabs  eat  this  animal, 
and  consider  it  a  delicacy,  notwithstanding  the  prohibition 
of  their  prophet,  who  forbade  the  use  of  such  quadrupeds  as 
burrow  under  ground.    The  sibsib  is  seldom  seen  northward 


NATURAL  HISTORY. 


323 


of  the  province  of  Suz,  but  it  abounds  in  all  the  mountains  of 
that  district.* 

The  heirie,  erragnol,  or  desert-camel,  is  an  animal  which 
must  not  be  omitted  in  our  zoological  outline.  In  form,  it 
bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  common  camel,  but  is  more 
elegant  in  its  shape  and  incomparably  swifter.  The  Arab, 
mounted  upon  this  useful  creature,  with  his  loins,  ears,  and 
breast  bound  round,  in  order  to  prevent  the  fatal  effects  which 
result  from  a  violent  percussion  of  the  air,  traverses  with  im- 
mense rapidity  the  scorching  sands  of  the  Great  Sahara,  the 
fiery  atmosphere  of  which  impedes  respiration  to  a  degree 
that  would  instantly  kill  any  Other  rider.  The  motion  of  the 
erragnol  is  violent,  and  can  only  be  endured  by  those  patient, 
abstemious,  and  hardy  individuals  who  are  accustomed  to  it, 
and  who  can  travel  three  days  without  tasting  food,  or  .not 
more  than  a  handful  of  dates.  When  speaking  of  this  fleet 
courser,  the  natives  remark  in  their  figurative  style,  If  thou 
shalt  meet  a  heirie,  and  say  to  the  rider  Salam  alec,  ere  he 
shall  have  ans^'ered  Alec  salam,  he  will  be  far  off,  and  near- 
ly out  of  sight,  for  his  swiftness  is  like  the  wind." 

Of  this  singular  species  of  the  camel  there  are  three  varie- 
ties, easily  distinguished  by  the  natives  of  the  Af  rican  Wilder- 
ness. I'he  first,  which  is  extremely  rare,  is  denominated 
tasayee,  or  the  heirie  of  nine  days  ;  that  is,  he  can  perform  a 
nine  days'  journey  in  One.  The  second  is  the  sabayee,  which 
in  one  day  can  go  the  usual  distance  of  seven  ;  and  the 
third,  or  most  inferior,  is  the  talatayee,  whose  speed  is  limited, 
to  a  three  days'  journey.  This  valuable  and  useful  animal, 
we  are  informed,  has  a  ring  put  through  his  upper  hp,  to 
which  is  h.xed  a  leathern  strap,  answering  the  purpose  of  a 
bridle  ;  the  saddle  is  similar  ^.to  that  used  by  the  Moors  and 
the  mountaineers  of  Andalusia.  With  a  goat-skin,  or  a 
porous  earthen  vessel,  filled  with  water,  a  few  dates,  and 
some  grour>d  barley,  the  Arab  travels  from  Timbuctoo  to 
Tafilet,  feeding  his  heirie  but  once  ;  for  on  an  emergency  this 
powerful  quadruped  will  abstain  from  drinking  during  tlie  long 
space  of -seven  days.f 

*  An  Account  of  the  Empire  of  Morocco,  by  James  Grey 
Jackson,  Esq.,  p.  31-37. 

f  Jackson's  Morocco,  p  40.  The  heirie  is  by  Dr.  Shaw 
called  mailiary  or  ishaarv  vol.  i.,  p.  306. 


824 


NATURAL  HISTORY. 


The  shruabah  ereeh,  or  desert-horse,  has  also  some  re- 
markable qualities,  and  partakes  to  a  certain  extent  of  the 
constitution  belonging  to  the  wonderful  creature  now  de- 
scribed. As,  however,  he  requires  a  feed  of  camel's  milk 
every  day,  he  is  not  so  well  fitted  for  the  fatigues  of  the 
Sahara,  where  such  an  accommodation  cannot  always  be  pro- 
cured. If  confined  to  corn,  hay,  or  straw,  he  loses  at  once 
his  beauty  and  his  swiftness,  and  not  unfrequently  pines 
away.  The  ereeh  resembles  a  greyhound  in  form,  having 
a  slender  body,  a  powerful  broad  chest,  and  small  legs  ;  and 
his  principal  use  in  the  hands  of  an  Arab  is  to  hunt  the 
ostrich,  at  which  he  is  said  to  be  very  expert.* 

In  the  department  of  birds  there  is  no  great  variety  in  the 
Barbary  States,  as  distinguished  from  other  parts  of  the  same 
continent.  The  ostrich,  the  eagle,  the  vulture,  and  the  stork, 
are  found  here  in  great  perfection,  more  especially  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Atlas,  where  the  monarcli  of  winged 
creatures  enjoys  his  throne  in  the  utmost  security.  Of  the 
stork,  the  general  colour  is  white,  the  extremities  of  the 
wings  being  tipped  with  black,  and  the  height  from  the  toe 
to  the  bill  nearly  three  feet.  During  the  summer,  the  old 
towns  of  West  Barbary  are  frequented  by  these  birds,  which 
usually  go  in  pairs  ;  they  are  migratory,  and  when  they  do 
not  return  to  their  wonted  haunts  at  the  accustomed  season, 
it  is  considered  by  the  inhabitants  as  ominous  of  evil.  Any 
person  who  should  presume  to  shoot  this  sacred  visiter  would 
incur  the  resentment  of  the  whole  city,  and  be  accounted  a 
sacrilegious  infidel ;  for  besides  being  of  the  greatest  utility 
in  destroying  serpents  and  other  noxious  reptiles,  they  are 
also  emblematical  of  faith  and  conjugal  affection,  and,  on 
that  account,  held  in  the  highest  estimation  by  all  true 
Mussulmans. 

There  is  a  bird,  by  the  natives  called  el  rogr,  which  in 
form  is  not  unlike  the  English  partridge,  though  its  plumage 
is  much  darker  It  is  found  only  in  dry  stony  places,  and 
seems  to  feed  on  the  stunted  shrubs  with  which  such  rocky 
parts  are  usually  covered  ;  basking  in  the  solar  rays  with 
every  appearance  of  delight,  and  only  rising  on  the  wing  at 

*  Jackson,  p.  42.  We  purposely  abstain  from  a  description 
of  the  quadrupeds  and  birds  common  to  the  Barbary  States  with 
the  other  parts  of  Africa,  referring  the  reader  to  the  fuller  notices 
contained  in  our  volumes  on  Egypt,  Nubia,  and  Abyssinia. 


NATURAL  HISTORY. 


325 


noon  and'sunset,  when  it  flies  to  the  nearest  river  to  quench 
its  thirst.    This  variety  is  altogether  unknown  iii  Europe. 

The  tibib,  which  resembles  the  sparrow,  is  very  common 
in  Barbar>',  and  visits  the  houses  every  morning  without  th- 
slightest  symptom  of  fear.  It  was  originally  an  inhabitan. 
of  the  Atlas,  whence  it  was  brought  by  an  English  merchant 
to  Mogadore,  where  the  breed  has  continued  ever  since. 

El  hage,  not  so  large  as  a  blackbird,  and  of  a  grayish  col- 
our, lives  upon  beetles  and  other  insects  of  a  similar  nature, 
which  he  never  eats  till  they  begin  to  putrefy.  He  frequents 
thorny  bushes,  on  the  upper  spikes  of  which  he  sticks  his 
httle  victims, -where  they  are  allowed  to  remain  till  by  their 
scent  they  show  proofs  of  incipient  decay,  and  invite  him  to 
a  repast.  He  has  obtained  his  name,  el  hage  or  hajji,  from 
the  circumstance,  that  numbers  of  them  are  seen  accompa- 
nying the  caravans  to  Mecca  ;  and  hence  the  reverence  and 
even  superstition  with  which  he  is  regarded  by  the  more 
ardent  disciples  of  the  prophet. 

Br.  Shaw  mentions  the  graab  el  Sahara,  or  crow  of  the 
Desert,  which  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  common  raven ; 
and  froni  the  redness  of  the  feet  and  bill  may  be  identified 
with  the  pyrocorax.  The  karabumo  is  of  the  eagle-kind, 
and  not  smaller  than  our  buzzard  ;  having  a  black  bill,  red 
iris,  yellow  short  feet,  the  back  of  a  gray  or  light-blue  colour, 
the  pinions  of  the  wings  black,  and  the  tail  whitish.  The 
burourou,  one  of  the  largest  species  of  horned  owls,  is  spotted 
like  the  Norwegian.  It  generally  frequents  the  Sahara  ;  and 
when  it  appears  torthe  northward  among  the  towns  and  villa- 
ges, it  is  fancied  to  portend  some  direful  calamity,  a  famine, 
or  a  pestilential  distemper.* 


SECTION  III.  BOTANY. 

On  this  subject  there  is  a  valuable  fund  of  information, 
though  interesting  chiefly  to  a  professional  botanist,  to  be 
obtained  in  the  "  Flora  Atlantica"  of  the  celebrated  Desfon- 
taines.  "VVe  learn  also  from  Rozet,  that  the  members  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom  which  occupy  the  plain  between  the 


*  Shaw's  Travels,  vol  I,  p.  332. 
Be 


326 


NATURAL  HISTORY. 


coast  and  the  range  of  the  little  Atlas,  are  absolutely  the 
same  as  those  most  common  on  the  northern  and  eastern 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  the  borders  of  Spain,  Provence, 
Italy,  the  Archipelago,  and  Syria.  The  trees  and  plants 
which  adorn  the  fields  in  the  temperate  latitudes  of  Europe, 
are  also  seen  in  the  gardens  of  Algiers,  Bleeda,  and  Colea. 
In  the  neighbourhood  of  the  capital  were  observed  the  fol- 
lowing, most  of  which  are  familiar  to  the  students  of  France, 
and  even  of  England  : — Fumaria  Officinalis  ;  Mehlotus  Offi- 
cinalis ;  Mimosa  Farnesiana  ;  Sanguisorba  Officinalis  ;  Mes- 
pylus  Oxyacantha;  Scabiosa  Arvensis  ;  Senecio  Vulgaris; 
Convolvulus  Arvensis  ;  Borago^Officinalis  ;  Solanum  Nigrum ; 
Solanum  Dulcamara  ;  Lamium  Album  ;  Marrubiurn  Vulgare  ; 
Mentha  Pulegium  ;  Anagallis  Arvensis  ;  Plantago  Corono- 
pus  ;  Plantago  Media  ;  Rumex  Acetosella ;  Urtica  Urens  ; 
Salix  Alba  ;  Salix  Babylonica,  &c. 

The  following  are  peculiar  to  the  Barbary  States,  and  are 
not  found  even  in  the  southern  parts  of  Europe.  M.  Rozet 
discovered  them  chiefly  on  the  hills  near  Algiers,  in  the  plain 
of  the  Metijah,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Oran  ; — Condylocarpus 
Muricatus  ;  Cleome  Arabica  ;  Cistus  Heterophyllus,  Cistus 
Arabicus  ;  Malva  ^gyptiaca  ;  Genista  Tricuspidata  ;  Phaca 
Boetica  ;  Pvrus  Japonica  ;  Sanguisorba  Mauritanica  ;  Passi- 
flora  Caeruiea  ;  Sempervivuni  Arboreum  ;  Ferula  Sulcata  ; 
Laserpitium  Gummifer.um  ;  Sium  Siculum  ;  Apinm  Graveo- 
lens  ;  Cachrys  Tomenlosa,  Cachrys  Peucedanoides  ;  Zacin- 
tha  Verrucosa  ;  Carduus  Giganteus  ;  Atrachylis  Gummifera  ; 
Artemisia  Arboria  ;  Cyhara  Carduncellus  ;  ^rica  Arboria  ; 
Lithospermum  Fruticosum  ;  Datura  Ferox ;  Physalis  Som- 
nifera  ;  Scroj)hularia  Auriculata  ;  Thymus  Numidicus  ;  Ru- 
mex Tingitanns  ;  Aristolochia  Bcetica  ;  Euphorbia  Mauritan- 
ica ;  Piiius  Alba  ;  Ins  Florentina  ;  Allium  Roseum  ;  Orni- 
thogalum  Arabicum  ;  Narcissus  Tazetta  ;  Scilla  Maritima ; 
Arundo  Donax  ;  Arundo  Mauritanica,  &c.* 

Among  the  more  familiar  plants,  prized  m  Northern 
Africa,  are  the  takanareete,  the  hashisha,  the  dergmuse,  or 
euphorbium,  and  the  celebrated  silphium,  so  long  an  article 
of  commerce. 

The  first,  which  is  properly  the  cactvs  opuntia,  is  occa- 
sionally known  as  the  Indian  fig,  or  prickly-pear.    The  tree 


Voyage  dans  la  Regence  d' Alger,  tome  i..  pp.  J 80, 181. 


NATURAL  HISTORY. 


327 


its  leaves,  from  the  sides  of  which  the  fruit  springs,  are  thick 
and  succulent,  and  impregnated  with  a  mucilaginous  juice, 
so  peculiarly  cooling  as  to  be  used  with  gum-ammonica  in  cases 
of  inflammation.  When  ripe,  the  fig  or  pear  is  of  an  oval 
form,  with  a  colour  inclining  to  yellow,  and  is  chiefly  valued 
for  its  effects  in  restoring  the  power  of  the  digestive  organs 
when  deranged  by  the  heat  of  the  climate. 

The  hashisha,  or  African  hemp-plant,  is  very  generally 
cultiveted  in  the  western  parts  of  the  Barbary  States  ;  not  so 
much  for  its  use  in  the  manufacture  of  cordage,  as  for  those 
-quahties  in  which  it  resembles  opium.  The  leaves,  but  more 
especially  the  seeds  and  flowers,  called  kief,  are  smoked  by 
the  natives,  who  are  said  to  derive  from  it  an  oblivion  of  all 
their  cares,  and  the  most  delightful  excitement  of  the  ima- 
gination. Those  who  have  been  long  accustomed  to  its  use 
cannot  exist  without  it.  The  kief  is  usually  pounded  and 
mixed  with  a  confection  called  "  elmogin,"  which  is  sold  at 
an  exorbitant  price.  A  piece  of  it  as  large  as  a  walnut  will 
deprive  a  man  of  all  the  ordinary  powers  of  reason,  and  is 
much  preferred  to  opium,  from  the  voluptuous  sensations 
which  it  never  "fails  to  produce.  Wine  or  brandy,  they 
maintain,  cannot  stand  in  competition  with  it.  The  leaves 
are  dried  and  cut  hke  tobacco,  with  which  they  are  smoked 
in  very  small  pipes  ;  but  when  ah  individual  wishes  to  indulge 
in  the  sensual  stupor  it  occasions,  he  smokes  the  hashisha 
pure,  and  in  less  than  half  an  hour  he  fancies  himself  an  em- 
peror and  master  of  the  whole  world,  of  all  its  wealth  and 
its  pleasures. 

Euphorbium,  called  furbiune  by  the  Arabs,  is  a  gum  pro- 
duced by  a  very  succulent  plant  growing  on  the  Atlas  Moun- 
tains, and  known  in  the  country  by  the  name  of  dergmuse. 
In  its  general  form  it  resembles  a  large  goblet,  and  is  some- 
what like  a  wild  thistle.  From  the  main  body  of  the  stem 
proceed  several  leafless  branches,  about  an  inch  in  diameter, 
from  the  top  of  which  shoot  out  similar  ones,  each  bearing 
on  its  summit  a  vivid  crimson  flower.  These  branches  are 
scalloped,  and  have  on  their  outer  sides  small  knots,  from  which 
grow  five  extremely  sharp  thorns,  about  one  third  of  an  inch 
in  length,  apparently  intended  by  nature  to  prevent  cattle 
from  eating  this  caustic  plant,  so  perilous  to  animal  life. 
When  it  assumes  this  aspect  it  may  be  considered  mature  ; 
ipon  which  the  natives  dwelling  in  the  lower  part*  of  the 


328 


NATURAL  HISTORY. 


upon  which  the  natives  dwelling  in  the  lower  parts  of  the 
Atlas  make  incisions  in  it  with  a  knife.  From  these  the 
juice  issues  in  considerable  quantities,  and,  after  being  dried 
by  the  sun,  contracts  a  yellowish  colour,  and  is  fit  for  being 
gathered  in  the  shape  of  euphorbium — a  medicinal  drug  of 
the  very  highest  power.  The  plant  produces  only  once  in 
four  years  ;  but  the  supply  notwithstanding  is  fully  equal  to 
the  demand  ;  the  cathartic  quality  being  rather  too  vigorous 
for  European  practice.  The  persons  who  collect  this  gum 
are  obliged  to  tie  a  cloth  over  their  mouth  and  nostrils,  to 
prevent  the  small  particles  from  annoying  them  by  entering 
the  brain  or  stomach. 

We  are  informed  that  the  bark  of  the  dergmuse  is  greatly 
valued  by  tanners,  and  that  to  its  singular  effects  the  leather  of 
Morocco  owes  its  chief  pre-eminence.  Various  attempts  have 
been  made  to  transplant  it  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  capital, 
but  hitherto,  owing  to  some  difference  in  the  soil  or  climate, 
without  any  degree  of  success.  It  grows  most  luxuriantly 
in  mountainous  situations,  interspersed  with  rocks,  and 
where  the  interstices  are  filled  with  a. black  loam  chiefly 
formed  of  decomposed  vegetables.* 

The  silphium,  well  known  to  the  botanists  and  epicures 
of  antiquity,  is  only  to  be  found  in  the  eastern  parts  of  the 
Tripoline  dominions,  where  also  it  is  fast  becoming  extremely 
scarce,  owing  to  the  pains  taken  by  the  Bedouins  to  extir- 
pate it,  under  the  impression  that  it  is  hurtful  to  their  cattle. 
In  fact,  it  is  believed  by  some  writers  to  have  entirely  dis- 
appeared, while  others  see  good  reason  to  identify  it  with  the 
spaghe,  a  weed  which  causes  great  mortality  among  camels. 
According  to  Theophrastus,  the  silphium  has  a  thick  fleshy 
root,  perennial  and  medicinal :  its  stem  is  formed  like  that 
of  the  papyrus  and  the  ferula,  equalling  this  last  in  thickness  ; 
while  its  leaves  resemble  those  of  the  selinum  or  Macedo- 
nian parsley.  It  is  found,  he  adds,  at  Cyrene,  and  princi- 
pally in  the  environs  of  the  Syrtis,  near  the  Gardens  of  the 
Hesperides.t 

The  medicinal  qualities  of  this  plant  have  been  greatly  ex- 
tolled by  Pliny,  v/ho  states  that  the  extract,  called  laser, 
usually  brought  its  weight  in  silver,  and  was  kept  in  the 

*  Jackson's  Morocco,  p.  80. 

t  Histor.  Plant.,  lib.  iv.  and  lib.  vi.,  passim,  quoted  by  Delia 
CeUa,  p.  129. 


NATURAL  HISTORY. 


329 


public  treasury  along  with  the  precious  metala.  On  one  oc- 
casion, when  Julius  Caesar  was  making  preparations  for  war, 
it  was  sold  for  the  service  of  the  commonwealth,  and  con- 
sidered a  principal  resource  of  the  public  revenue.  It  is 
certain,  too,  that  all  the  ancients  agreed  in  describing  the 
Cyrenaica  as  the  peculiar  country  of  the  silphium  ;  and  we 
learn  also  from  the  Greek  naturalist,  that  it  was  inconceiva- 
bly averse  to  every  other  soil,  and  could  not  be  transplanted 
without  the  hazard  of  loss.* 

In  the  work  of  Captain  Beechey,  the  vegetable  now  men- 
tioned is  said  to  be -about  three  feet  in  height,  and  to  have  a 
strong  resemblance  to  the  hemlock,  or  more  properly,  perhaps, 
to  the  daucas,  or  wild  carrot.  It  appears  to  have  been  found 
in  Asia,  as  well  as  in  some  parts  of  Europe  ;  but  that  of 
Gyrene  was  the  most  esteemed,  and  constituted  a  valuable 
article  of  commerce.  In  the  time  of  Pliny  it  had  become 
80  scarce  in  the  market,  that  a  single  stalk  of  it  was  given  to 
the  Emperor  Nero,  as  a  present  suitable  to  a  person  of  his  rank. 
The  extract  and  the  stem  or  root — the  laser  and  laserpitium 
of  the  naturalist — are  mentioned  in  the  bill  of  fare  of  the  Per- 
sian monarchs,  as  given  by  Polynaeus,  which  was  discovered 
by  Alexander  the  Great,  engraved  on  a  brazen  column  in  the 
royal  palace.  As  to  the  appearance  of  the  extract,  we  have 
no  information  ;  but  the  stem  and  the  root  seem  to  have 
been  eaten  much  in  the  same  way  that  we  eat  celery — which, 
indeed,  it  very  much  resembles — either  stewed  or  boiled,  f 

We  have  already  mentioned  that  the  clnnate  of  Barbary  is 
free  from  those  extremes  and  sudden  changes  which  charac- 
terize the  atmospherical  phenomena  of  Europe.  The  air  is 
wholesome  and  temperate,  neither  too  hot  in  summer  nor 
too  cold  in  winter  ;  and  the  successive  seasons  fall  so  insen- 
sibly into  one  another,  that  the  transition  is  not  felt  by  the 
most  delicate  constitution.  During  twelve  years  that  Dr. 
Shaw  spent  in  the  country,  the  thermometer  only  twice  de- 
scended to  the  freezing  point ;  on  both  which  occasions  the 
hills  were  covered  with  snow  ;  and  the  air  was  never  sultiy, 
except  when  the  wind  blew  from  the  Desert.  The  barometer, 
again,  amid  all  the  revolutions  of  the  weather,  did  not  vary 
more  than  an  inch  and  three  tenths  ;  rising  with  the  north 

*  PUn.  Hist.  Nat,  lib.  xvii.,  p.  3.    Narrative,  p.  132. 
t  Proceedings  of  the  Expedition,  «&tc.,  p.  412-416; 
E  e  2 


330 


NATURAL  HISTORY. 


wind,  although  there  were  heavy  rains,  and  falling  with  the 
south,  whatever  might  be  the  condition  of  the  atmosphere  as 
to  moisture. 

The  average  quantity  of  rain  marked  annually  at  Algiers  is 
about  28  inches,  beginning  usually  in  autumn,  and  continuing 
at  intervals  till  the  month  of  May.  Little  or  none  is  enjoyed 
during  the  summer  ;  and  in  most  parts  of  the  Sahara,  partic- 
ularly in  the  Jerid,  there  is  seldom  any  rain  at  all.  These 
observations  apply  generally  to  the  di.stricts  along  the  Medi- 
terranean shore,  but  must  be  subjected  to  some  modification 
when  referred  to  the  territories  of  Morocco,  owing  as  well  to 
the  vicinity  of  the  mountains  as  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  which 
washes  its  western  border.* 

*  Travels  in  Barbary,  vol  i.,  p.  244.  Voyage  dans  la  Regence 
d' Alger,  tome  i.,  p.  83-137. 


INDEX. 


A. 

Abdallah,  lieutenant  of  Caliph  Othman,  invades  Africa,  86. 

Africa,  Northern,  division  of,  according  to  Herodotus,  21 .  Com- 
merce of,  298.  Physical  advantages  of  numerous,  307.  Ge 
ology  of,  illustrated  by  French  writers,  310.  Extent  of,  ac 
cording  to  several  authors,  64. 

.^neas  supposed  to  touch  the  shores  of  Carthage,  25. 

.^tius,  dispute  with  Bonifacius,  73,  whom  he  slays,  75. 

Agadeer,  notice  of,  292. 

Aglabites,  foundation  of  the  dynasty  of  the,  90. 

Agriculture  encouraged  by  the  Carthaginians,  28. 

Akbah  invades  Barbary  States,  87.    His  great  success,  ib.  He 

builds  Kairwan,  a  mosque,  and  palace,  ib. 
Al  Bereton,  description  of,  115. 

Alexander  the  Great,  resentment  of  against  the  Carthaginians 
for  assisting  the  people  of  Tyre,  32. 

Algiers,  origin  of  the  term,  230.  Extent  of  territory,  231.  City 
described,  232.  Gardens  near,  235.  Attacked  unsuccessfully 
by  Charles  V.,  239.  French  attack,  244.  Attack  by  the 
Americans,  246.  Treaty  of  James  II.  with,  ib.  Corsairs  of, 
ib.  Cruel  conduct  of  the  dey,  247.  Expedition  of  Lord  Ex- 
mouth,  248.  Invaded  by  the  French,  251.  State  of  modern, 
253.  Power  of  the  dey,  254.  Government  of,  255.  Revenue 
of,  ib.  Quarrel  with  Tunis,  256.  Climate  of,  272.  Attempts 
at  colonization,  ib.  Plan  of  colonies  at,  272,  298.  Rapacity 
of  the  dey,  303.    Trade  of,  305.    Imports  of,  306. 

Almamoun,  science  and  learning  patronised  by,  107.  Collects 
the  works  of  the  Greek  philosophers  to  be  translated  into  the 
language  of  Arabia,  ib.    Praised  by  Abulpharagius,  ib. 

Almohades,  sect  of,  281. 

Amber,  trade  of  Carthaginians  in,  54,  57. 

Apollonia,  ruins  of,  once  a  Grecian  port,  123.  Magnificent  relics, 
124. 

Arabs,  discoveries  in  science  by,  109.  Habits  of  those  in  the 
desert,  159.  Resemble  the  Scottish  Highlanders,  176.  Curi- 
ous village  of  near  the  Atlas  range,  177. 

Arar,  wells  excavated  near,  161. 

Aristippus,  doctrines  of,  97. 


332 


INDEX. 


Arzillah,  the  Julia  Traducta  of  the  Romans,  account  of,  289. 

Asia,  emigrants  from  to  Northern  Africa,  23. 

Atlantic,  extent  of  navigation  by  the  Carthaginians,  59.  Opin- 
ions of  various  authors,  by  some  of  whom  it  is  maintained  they 
discovered  the  New  World,  ib. 

Atlas,  Little,  extent  of,  313.  Iron  mines  in,  279.  Volcanic  rocks, 
315. 

Atlas,  Mount,  range  and  extent  of,  21,  277.  Geological  forma- 
tion of  not  yet  minutely  examined,  310.    Organic  remains,  ib. 

Augustin,  St.,  character  of,  101.  Made  bishop  of  Hippo  Regius, 
the  modern  Bona,  102.  Defends  it  against  Genseric  and  the 
Vandals,  ib.  His  numerous  writings,  genius,  theological  opin- 
ions, and  death,  102,  103. 

Augustus  Caesar,  Carthage  renewed  under  the  direction  of,  66. 

B. 

Barbarossa,  two  brothers  of  this  name,  Home  and  Hayradin, 
197.  Become  formidable  pirates,  ib.  Horuc  defeated  and 
slain,  198.  Hayradin  acknowledges  the  Grand  Seignior,  and 
prepares  to  attack  Tunis,  199.-  Provokes  the  resentment  of 
Charles  V.,  who  makes  preparations  for  war,  200.  Tunis  falls 
into  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards,  201.  Hayradin  is  defeated 
and  flees  to  Bona,  202.  Fights  under  the  banners  of  Francis 
I.  in  Italy,  203. 

Barbary  States,  contrast  between  their  ancient  and  present  con- 
dition, 17.  Ancient  manners  of  the  inhabitants,  18.  Remains 
of  former  magnificence,  ib.  Revolutions  sudden  and  entire, 
19.  Countries  comprehended  in,  20.  Division  of,  according 
to  Herodotus,  ib.  Origin  of  the  term,  22.  Monuments  which 
denote  an  Eastern  people,  24.  Inroad  of  Arabs,  91.  Rehgion 
and  learning  of,  93.  Christianity  introduced,  97,  98.  Decay 
of  Christianity,  101-107.  Libraries,  lOS-1 10.  Education,  111. 
Zoology,  319.    Metals,  ib.    Birds,  324. 

Barca,  desert  of,  20.  Description  of  district  and  town,  140. 
More  ancient  than  the  Greek  colonies,  ib.  Supposed  to  have 
been  founded  by  the  brother  of  Dido,  but  built  by  the  brothers 
of  Arcesilaus,  king  of  Cyrene,  ib. 

Bedouins,  description  of,  176. 

Belisarius,  Roman  army  led  by,  81.    Triumph  of,  84. 
Bengazi,  description  of,  146.    Market  at,  300. 
Bengerwad,  Cape  of,  tower  near,  158. 

Blake,  Admiral,  gallant  and  successful  attack  on  Tunis  by,  183. 

Bomba.  Gulf  of,  115. 

Bon,  Cape,  country  in  the  vicinity  of,  223. 
Bona,  description  of,  258.    The  ancient  Hippo  Regius,  102. 
Bonifacius,  Vandals  invited  by,  73.    Death  of,  75 
Braiga,  account  of,  155. 


INDEX. 


333 


Britain,  tin-mines  of,  54.    Early  intercourse  of  Carthaginians 

with,  54,  56.    Southern  coasts  visited,  56. 
Bujeya,  notice  of,  260. 
Byzacium,  towns  in,  225. 

C. 

Cahina,  Queen,  Moors  headed  by,  88. 
Camels  first  naturaUzed  m  Barbar}-,  91. 

Carthage,  foundation  of,  24.  Ambitious  views  of,  27.  Extent 
of  territorj',  ib.  Tribes  subject  to  or  in  alliance  with,  29. 
First  attempt  on  Sicilv  and  Sardinia,  30.  Besieeed,  32.  Fall 
of,  38, 62, 76.  Hatred  of  Cato,  37.  Constitution  of,  46.  Kings 
of,  50.  Trade  of,  51.  Intercourse  with  Spain,  53.  Naviga- 
tion of,  59.  Literature  of,  60.  Wealth  and  civiUzation  of  the 
inhabitants,  61. 

Carthage,  New,  description  of,  67.  Remains  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, 218.  Account  of  by  Gibbon,' 219.  Description  of  by 
Chateaubriand,  221. 

Ceuta,  account  of,  289.. 

Charax,  ruins- of,  158. 

Charles  V.,  expedition  against  Tunis  by,  200.  His  immense 
preparations  and  complete  succe^,  201,  202.  His  attack  on 
Algiers  and  subsequent  disasters,' 239,  243. 

Cinyphus,  bridge  across  the,  166. 

Clybea,  the  KaUbia  of  the  Latins,  223. 

Constantina,  account  of,  259. 

Corsica,  chief  exports  of,  53. 

Cyprian,  bishop  of  Carthage,  100.  His  great  learning  and  tal- 
ents, ib.  Value  of  his  works,  ib.  Is  persecuted  by  the  Em- 
peror Valerian,  and  put  to  death,  ib. 

Cyrene,  history  of,  120.  Government,  121.  Situation,  126. 
Tombs,  127,  131.  Remains  of  theatre,  129,  130.  Fiction  of 
petrified  village  near,  133.  Fountain  at,  137.  Geological 
structure  of  the  mountains,  311. 

D. 

Delia  Cella,  opinion  of  as  to  the  salt-marshes,  164. 
Dema,  description  of,  117,  119. 
Donatists,  persecution  of,  73. 

E. 

Edrisi,  description  of  Carthage  by,  220. 
Elba,  iron  mines  of,  53. 
El  effah,  poisonous  snake,  320. 
EUssa,  or  Dido,  story  of,  25. 
Eudoxia,  wife  of  Hunneric,  79. 


334  INDEX. 

Euphorbium,  juice  of,  327. 

Exmouth,  Lord,  attack  of  on  Algiers,  248. 

F. 

Fatimites,  rise  of  the,  91.    Promote  learning,  107.    Extent  ot 

royal  library  at  Kairwan  and  Alexandria,  108, 
Festus  Avienus,  poem  of,  55. 
Fetichism,  origin  of,  94. 

Fez,  original  country  of  the  Moors,  66.   Climate  and  soil  of, 

-278.    City  of,  294. 
Fezzan,  situation  of,  188.    Climate  of,  ib.    Population,  189. 

Commerce  of,  ib. 
Firmus,  usurpation  of,  69. 
France,  occupation  of  Algiers  by,  274. 

G. 

Gabes,  population  of,  227. 

Gelimer,  usurpation  of,  80.  Surrenders  to  the  Romans,  83. 
Genoa,  ancient  treaty  with  Barbary  in  the  archives  of,  300. 
Genseric,  conduct  of,  73.    Destroys  Carthage,  76.  Persecutes 

Christians,  77.    Invades  Italy,  78.    Death,  80. 
Ghimines,  remains  of  forts  at,  154. 
Ghurba,  notice  of,  223. 
Gildo,  history  of,  71. 
Gilma,  site  of,  228. 

Giratf,  salt  marsh  or  lake  at,  161.  i 
Gorbata,  salt-water  marsh  near,  228. 

H. 

Hadjoute,  plain  of,  264. 

Hajjis,  attack  of  freebooters  on,  116. 

Hamet  the  Great,  cruelty  and  treachery  of,  186. 

Hamilco,  voyage  of  to  the  islands  of  Britain,  54. 

Hammamet,  account  of,  223.    Mausoleum  near,  ib. 

Hamza,  castle  of,  261. 

Hannibal,  character  of,  33.  Recalled,  36.  Defeated  at  Zama,  ib. 
Hanno,  expedition  of,  57. 
Hassan,  defeat  of,  88. 

Hassan,  dynasty  of,  first  ascended  the  throne  of  Morocco,  282. 

Hassan  Aga,  conduct  of,  238. 

Heirie,  desert-camel,  323. 

Heraclian,  rebellion  of,  72.  • 

Herodotus,  account  of  merchants  of  Carthage  by,  61. 

Hesperides,  gardens  of,  150. 

Hiero,  king  of  Syracuse,  Carthaginians  interpose  in  behalf  of, 
32. 

Homer,  fine  tribute  to  the  genius  of,  38, 


INDEX.  835 


Innane,  encampments  of,  261. 

J. 

Jarbas,  rebellion  of,  40. 
Jemme,  ruins  of,  227. 
Jerba,  island  of,  226. 

Jol,  or  Julia  Caesarea,  description  of,  267. 
Joshua,  son  of  Nun,  described  as  a  robber,  23. 
Juba,  crown  of  Numidia  given  to,  41. 
Juba  (the  younger),  character  of,  42,  96. 

Jugurtha,  history  of,  39.    Compels  Romans  to  pass  under  the 
yoke,  40. 

Julia  Traducta,  modem  Arzillah,  290. 
Jurjura,  Mount,  notice  of,  261. 

Justinian,  last  contest  between  Rome  and  Carthage  under,  81. 
State  of  the  country  in  the  time  of,  85. 

K. 

Kairwan,  foundation  of,  87.    Mosque  at,  227. 
Keflf,  remahis  of  art  found  at,  224. 

L. 

La  Gala,  settlement  of,  long  possessed  by  the  French,  258. 

Coral  fishery  at,  259. 
Lactantius,  worlis  of,  101.    Called  the  Christian  Cicero,  ib. 

Was  tutor  to  a  son  of  Constantme,  ib. 
Larache,  or  El  Haralch,  account  of,  290. 
Lebida,  ruins  of,  examined  by  Captain  Smyth,  166. 
Leo,  Pope,  armament  htted  out  by  for  the  redemption  of  Chris 

tian  captives,  80. 
Leo  Africanus,  opinion  of  as  to  the  term  Barbary,  22;  and  as  to 

Mesurata,  165. 
Lipara,  famous  for  the  production  of  resin,  53. 
Louis  IX.,  descent  on  Tunis  by,  195.    Sufferings  of  his  army, 

196.    His  sickness  and  death,  197. 
Lyon,  Captain,  account  of  the  serpent^eaters  by,  190. 

M. 

Madeira,  mention  of  by  Diodorus,  58. 

Mago,  house  of,  47,  49.    Works  of.  60. 

Mahedia,  remarks  on,  225. 

Mahiriga,  remains  at.  157. 

Malta,  beautiful  cloths  made  at,  53. 

Mansel,  Sir  R.,  expedition  of  agamst  Algiers,  246. 

Marabut  Sidi,  ruin  of,  141. 


336  INDEX. 

Marcius,  repulsed  by  Carthaginians,  37. 

Marius,  seen  at  ruins  of  Carthage,  42. 

Marjorian,  proposed  invasion  of  Carthage  by,  79. 

Marseilles,  Greek  colony  at,  5-1. 

Masinissa  unites  with  Scipio  against  Carthage,  34. 

Matafuz,  Cape,  geological  structure  of,  315. 

Mauritania,  division  into  two  sections,  44. 

Medinet  Sultan,  outUne  of  fortifications  at,  158.  Once  an  im- 
portant military  station,  ib.    Remains  of  ancient  town,  159. 

Mediterranean,  encroachments  of  on  the  shores  of  N.  Africa,  124 

Meheduma,  or  Mamora,  town  in  a  neglected  state,  290.  Mag 
nificent  plain  in  the  vicinity  of,  ib. 

Melilla,  notice  of,  287. 

Mequinez,  description  of,  296.  One  of  the  capitals  of  Morocco, 
ib.  Contains  a  splendid  palace,  ib.  Manners  of  inhabitants 
mild  and  courteous,  ib. 

Merge,  plain  of,  140,  142. 

Mesurata,  account  of,  163,  165. 

Metijah,  plain  of  described,  264 

Mileu,  the  Milevum  of  the  ancients,  description  of,  260. 

Mogadore,  description  of,  292.  Imoorts  at,  307.  Method  of 
keeping  accounts  at,  ib. 

Moors,  civilization  in  Northern  Africa  destroyed  by,  85.  Con- 
quered by  the  Moslem,  88.  Character  of  modern,  212.  Des- 
titute of  taste,  211. 

Morabeth,  sect  of,  called  also  Almoravides,  281.  Fury  of  their 
invasions,  ib.  Their  objects  not  less  political  than  religious, 
ib.    Superseded  by  the  Almohades,  ib. 

Morocco,  extent  of  empire,  276.  Chmate,  277, 293.  Jews,  279, 
286.  Population,  280.  History  of  the  empire,  ib.  Variety 
of  tribes,  282.  Government,  283.  Manners  of,  284.  Domes- 
tic customs,  285.  Religion,  286.  Revenue,  287.  Description 
of  the  city,  293. 

Mostagan,  gardens  near,  267. 

Muktar,  trade  in  sulphur  at-,  157. 

Muley  Hassan  deposed,  199.    Restored,  203. 

Mustapha  Pacha,  aqueduct  of,  271.  The  style  of  architecture 
peculiar,  ib. 

N. 

Nabal,  notice  of,  223. 

Naples,  vessels  belonging  to,  employed  in  fishery  at  Bona,  249. 

Dey  of  Algiers  retires  to,  252.  , 
Narborough,  Sir  John,  attacks  Tripoli,  186. 

O. 

Ommiades,  djmasty  of  expelled  from  the  throne  of  Spain,  281. 
/ran,  town  of,  264.   Described  by  M.  Rozet,  ib.  Possessioii 


INDEX.  337 

long  contested  by  Spaniards  and  Moors,  ib.   Occupies  two 
platforms,  ib.    Inhabitants  fled  from  French,  266. 
O'Reilly,  expedition  of  against  Algiers,  244. 

P. 

Pentapolis,  origin  of  the  name,  ]  20. 

Persians  land  in  Africa,  and  use  their  ships  for  houses,  23. 
Phoenicians,  colonies  founded  by  on  the  coasts  of  Africa  and 
Spain,  24. 

Pianura,  or  plain  near  Tripoli,  description  of,  177.  Bears  luxu- 
riant crops,  and  is  sometimes  Like  a  sea  of  sand  shifting  from 
place  to  place,  ib. 

Placidia,  her  mfluence  in  the  government  of  the  West,  73. 

PImy,  opinion  of  as  to  the  course  of  the  Nile  and  Niger,  96. 

Polybius,  remark  of,  27.    Singular  fact  mentioned  by,  46. 

Pompey  defeats  Jarbas,  a  sheik  of  Numidia,  40.  Conflict  in 
Barbary  between  Caesar  and,  42. 

Procopius,  anecdote  recorded  by,  23. 

PsyUi,  of  serpent-eaters,  account  of,  190. 

Ptolemeta,  Ptolemais  of  ancient  writers  and  Dolmeita  of  the 
Arabs,  description  of,  141.  Great  strength  of  walls,  142. 
Style  of  architecture  at,  144.  Magnificent  dormitory  or  mau- 
soleum, ib. 

Ptolemy,  son  of  Juba,  history  of,  43. 

Q. 

Queen  Cahina,  her  pretensions  and  extravagance,  88.  Her 
death,  ib. 

Questions  decided  by  Carthaginian  people  when  kings  and  sen- 
ate could  not  agree,  48. 

R. 

Rabat,  situation  of,  291.    Remains  of  castle  near,  ib. 
Regulus,  Carthage  besieged  by,  32.    Patriotism  of,  ib. 
Romans,  mercenary  conduct  of,  68. 
Roman  towns,  vestiges  of,  263. 
Rozet,  M.,  his  work  on  Algiers,  309. 

S. 

Sachrin,  situation  of,  156. 

Saguntum,  taking  t>f  by  Hannibal  occasioned  the  second  Punic 
war,  33. 

Sahara,  extent  of,  22.   Tribes  in  vicinity  of,  262.  Conjectures 

as  to  the  origin  of,  311,  315, 
Sallee,  description  of,  291. 
Sallecto,  remains  of  castle  at,  226. 

29 


338 


INDEX. 


Saracens,  invasion  by,  86. 
Sardinia,  first  attempt  of  Carthaginians  on,  30. 
Scandinavia,  amber  plentiful  at,  56. 
Schella,  site  of,  291. 

Science  introduced  into  Africa,  103,  108.    Decay  of,  112. 
Scilly  Islands,  mentioned  by  Festus  Avienus,  55.   No  traces 

of  the  mines  to  be  found  on,  57. 
Scipio  invades  Africa,  34. 
Scipio  Emilianus  destroys  Carthage,  38. 
Selim  II.,  Moorish  dynasty  ended  by,  204. 
Sert,  supposed  site  of,  161. 
Sfaitla,  splendid  ruins  near,  228. 
Sicily,  first  attempt  of  Carthaginians  on,  30. 
Siwah,  site  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon,  189. 
Sophonisba,  romantic  tale  of,  35.- 

Spain,  mines  of  enabled  Carthaginians  to  pay  armies,  &c.,  33. 

Intercourse  of  Carthaginians  with,  53.    Expedition  of  against 

Algiers,  242. 
Stilicho,  his  wisdom  and  bravery,  71. 
Suffetes,  Carthaginian  rulers,  50.    Th^ir  duties,  ib. 
Susa,  notice  of,  225,  227. 

Syracuse,  Carthaginian  traders  settled  at,  53.  •  • 
Syrtis,  Greater,  soil  in  the  neighbourhood  of,  156. 

T. 

Tabilba,  remains  of  castle  at,  155. 
Tacfarinas,  rebellion  of,  43. 
Tagiura,  country  around,  169. 
Tangier,  notice  of,  289. 
Tefessad,  notice  of,  268. 
Terodant,  account  of,  295. 
Tetuan,  situation  of,  288. 

Teuchira,  description  of,  145.  Ruins  of  Christian  churches  af, 
146. 

Tezzoute,  ruins  near,  260. 
Theodosius  sent  to  repel  the  Moors,  70. 

Tin,  sought  by  the  Carthaginians  in  Britain,  Spain,  and  Gaul, 

54,  57. 
Titteri,  rock  of,  261. 

Tlemsan,  towns  in  the  province  of,  262.    Town  of,  ib. 

Tripoli,  besieged  by  tribes  of  the  desert,  68.  Limits  of  the  pa- 
cnalic,  153.  Origin  of  the  name,  170.  Triumphal  arch,  173. 
Administration  of  justice,  179.  Visit  of  an  English  lady  to 
the  caurt  of,  180.  Conquered  by  Charles  V.,  183.  Principal 
officers  of  state,  187.    Exports,  301.    Imports,  ib. 

TripoUnes,  character  of,  171.  Manners,  175-192.  Houses  oL 
178. 


INDEX.  339 

Tubersoke,  forai  of,  225. 
Tuburbo,  notice  of,  224. 

Tunis,  Carthaginians  repair  to,  26.  Extent  of  the  pachalic,  J  94. 
Government,  ib.  Expedition  of  Charles  V.  against,  200.  End 
of  the  Moorish  dynasty  at,  204.  First  dey  elected,  ib.  First 
monarch,  ib.  Authority  of  the  bey,  205.  Attacked  by  Admi- 
ral Blake,  206.  Situation,  207.  Climate,  208.  Present  con- 
dition, 208-216.  Superstition  of  inhabitants,  209.  Singular 
custom  at,  211.  Anecdotes  of  the  late  bey,  213,  216.  Popu- 
lation, 214.  Revenue,  215.  Aqueduct  near,  218.  Account 
of  small  towns  in  the  pachalic  of,  223.  Quarrel  between  Al- 
giers and,  256.  Commerce,  302.  Cause  of  the  dechne  of 
trade,  303.  Method  of  keeping  accounts,  305.  Intercourse 
with  England,  304. 

Tyre,  affinity  to  Carthage,  26. 

U. 

Utica,  site  of  can  no  longer  be  determined,  222. 

V, 

Valentinian,  conduct  of,  69. 

Vandals  first  appear  in  Northern  Africa,  73. 

Velez,  or  Belis,  notice  of,  287. 

Vienna,  determination  of  the  European  powers  at  the  Congress 
of,  248. 

W. 

Wady  Khahan,  166. 

X. 

Ximenes,  Cardinal,  advice  of  to  the  king  of  Spain,  243. 
Z. 

Zaffran,  description  of  by  Delia  Cella,  159. 

Zama,  battle  of,  36. 

Zeirites,  rise  of,  91. 

Zehten,  description  of,  165. 

Zeugitania,  cape  in  the  vicinity  of,  222. 

Zowan,  remains  of  the  grand  aqueduct  near,  218. 

Zoology,  319, 

THE  END. 


AFRICA  COMPLETED, 

In  Four  Volumes,  of  lohich  any  one  may  be  had  separately. 


The  Proprietors  of  this  Library  have  much  satisfaction 
in  announcing  to  the  pubHc  the  completion  of  that  part  of 
their  plan  which  comprehends  the  History,  the  Antiquities, 
the  Geography,  the  Statistics,  and  Natural  Productions  of 
the  African  Continent. 

Four  volumes  have  now  appeared,  illustrative  of  those 
interesting  subjects,  and  devoted  to  particular  sections  of 
that  quarter  of  the  globe.  The  first  of  these,  entitled  Nar- 
rative OF  Discovery  and  Adventure  in  Africa,  not  only 
describes  the  natural  features  of  that  continent,  and  the  so- 
cial condition  of  its  people,  but  also  exhibits  a  view  of  what- 
ever is  most  interesting  in  the  researches  and  observations 
of  those  travellers  who  have  sought  to  explore  its  interior, 
from  the  times  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  down  to  the  re- 
cent expeditions  of  Park,  Clapperton,  and  Lander  ;  thus 
presenting,  within  a  narrow  compass,  all  that  is  known  of 
those  inmiense  deserts  which  have  hitherto  been  a  blank  in 
the  geography  of  the  world. 

The  second  volume.  View  of  Ancient  and  Modern 
Egypt,  has  for  its  object  to  lay  before  the  reader  every  thing 
which  has  been  ascertained  respecting  that  wonderful  coun- 
try from  the  days  of  the  Pharaohs  down  to  our  own  ;  mark- 
ing the  progress  of  the  human  race  in  civilization  and  lew-n- 
ing,  and  more  especially  the  beginnings  of  society  at  the  ear- 
liest period  to  which  the  writings  of  uninspired  authors 
carry  back  the  mind  of  the  contemplative  student.  This 
narrative  displays  the  genius  and  astonishing  acquirements 
of  the  old  Egyptians,  chiefly  through  the  medium  of  those 
great  works  of  architecture,  statuary,  and  sculpture,  which 
are  still  to  be  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile.  Pains  have 
also  been  taken  to  explain  the  labours  of  Young,  Champol- 
lion,  and  other  learned  men  at  home  and  abroad,  who,  since 


342 


AFRICA  COMPLETED. 


the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  have  contributed  not  a 
little  to  throw  hght  on  the  remote  ages  which  preceded  the 
Persian  Conquest,  hitherto  consigned  to  mysticism  and  fable. 
Equal  care  has  been  taken  with  the  history  of  Modern  Egypt, 
the  main  facts  being  derived  from  the  communications  of 
such  writers  as  had  dwelt  some  time  in  the  country,  and  who 
thereby  enjoyed  an  opportunity,  not  only  of  recording  the 
principal  events  which  have  taken  place  under  the  govern- 
ment of  Mohammed  Ali,  but  also  of  comparing  the  actual 
condition  of  the  inhabitants  with  the  barbarism  from  which 
they  have  gradually  emerged. 

NtjBiA  AND  Abyssinia  constitute  the  subject  of  the  third 
volume,  regions  than  which  none  could  possibly  be  more  in- 
teresting to  the  antiquary  and  the  scholar.  They  were  uni- 
versally regarded  by  the  poets  and  philosophers  of  Greece, 
as  the  cradle  of  those  arts  which  at  a  later  period  covered 
the  kingdom  of  the  Pharaohs  with  so  many  splendid  monu- 
ments, as  well  as  of  those  religious  rites  which,  after  being 
slightly  modified  by  the  priests  of  Thebes,  were  adopted  by 
the  ancestors  of  Homer  and  Virgil  as  the  basis  of  their  my- 
thology. In  tracing  the  connexion  of  the  primitive  people 
who  dwelt  on  the  Upper  Nile  with  the  inhabitants  of  Arabia 
and  the  remoter  East,  the  author  has  availed  himself  of  the 
best  information  that  could  be  procured  from  continental  au- 
thors, not  less  than  from  the  volumes  of  our  own  country- 
men who  have  ascended  above  the  Second  Cataract.  The 
late  expedition  of  Ishmael  Pacha  into  Sennaar,  and  the  oth- 
er districts  watered  by  the  Blue  and  White  rivers,  has  ad- 
ded greatly  to  our  topographical  knowledge  of  that  portion 
of  Africa,  one  of  the  least  frequented  by  Europeans. 
Among  the  interesting  facts  fully  established  by  recent  trav- 
ellers into  Ethiopia,  none  is  more  worthy  of  notice  than  the 
circumstance  that  the  Christian  religion,  received  about  fif- 
teen hundred  years  ago,  continues  to  be  professed  by  a  great 
majority  of  the  people.  Of  the  literature  of  the  same  an- 
cient nation,  so  far  as  the  relics  of  it  can  be  collected  from 
their  chronicles  and  books  of  devotion,  a  suitable  account 
has  been  given.  But  the  reader  will  be  mainly  surprised  at 
the  extent  and  magnificence  of  the  architectural  remains  of 
Nubia,  which  in  some  instances  have  been  found  to  rival,  and 
in  others  even  to  surpass,  the  more  celebrated  buildings  of 
Egypt.    It  will  no  longer  be  denied  by  any  one,  that  the  pat- 


AFRICA  COMPLETED. 


343 


tern  or  type  of  those  stupendous  erections  which  continue 
to  excite  the  admiration  of  the  tourist,  at  Karnac,  Luxor, 
and  Ghizeh,  may  be  detected  in  the  numerous  monumenta 
still  visible  between  the  site  of  the  famed  Meroe  and  the 
Falls  of  Es  Souan. 

The  fourth  volume,  entitled,  The  History  and  Present 
Condition  of  the  Barbary  States,  has  for  its  object  an 
historical  elucidation  of  those  remarkable  provinces  which 
stretch  along  the  southern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean, 
from  the  period  when  they  were  first  colonized  by  the  Phoeni- 
cians down  to  our  own  times.  In  this  retrospect  are  exhib- 
ited the  rise  of  the  Carthaginians — their  progress  in  com- 
merce, navigation,  and  agriculture — their  struggle  with  the 
Romans  for  universal  dominion — and  also  their  misfortunes, 
defeats,  and  final  subjugation.  A  view  is  likewise  given  of 
the  establishment  of  the  Christian  religion  in  Northern  Afri- 
ca— the  character  of  the  more  distinguished  divines,  their 
doctrines-and  usages,  till  the  light  of  the  primitive  faith  was 
obscured  by  the  ascendency  of  the  Vandals.  The  annals  of 
Modern  Barbary  bring  the  reader  acquainted  with  the  rela- 
tions which  so  long  subsisted  between  her  rulers  and  the 
maritime  states  of  Europe,  and  also  with  the  origin  of  the 
several  wars  which  from  time  to  lime  were  waged  against 
the  pirates  of  Sallee,  Tunis,  and  Algiers,  by  the  Germans, 
French,  and  English.  Tiie  trade,  manufactures,  and  agri- 
cultural resources  of  the  whole  coast,  from  Cyrenaicato  Mo- 
rocco, are  illustrated  by  a  reference  to  the  latest  authorities, 
more  especially  those  writers  who  have  visited  the  several 
regencies  since  the  bombardment  conducted  by  Lord  Ex- 
mouth,  and  the  invasion  of  General  Bourmont. 

Such  is  a  general  outline  of  the  volumes  devoted  to  the 
illustration  of  Africa — a  portion  of  the  globe  the  interest  of 
which  is  every  day  increasing  in  the  eyes  of  Europeans.  To 
point  out  the  peculiar  advantages  of  this  part  of  their  scheme 
appears  to  the  Publishers  altogether  superfluous ;  for,  after 
the  delineation  just  given,  no  additional  evidence  can  be  ne- 
cessary to  satisfy  the  intelligent  reader,  that  he  is  hereby 
provided  with  a  complete  and  connected  view  of  African 
history,  geography,  literature,  and  natural  science. 

The  completion  of  this  part  of  their  undertaking  will,  the 
Proprietors  hope,  be  regarded  as  an  earnest  of  their  inten- 
tions with  respect  to  aH  the  other  sections  of  their  Library. 


I 


